Fire officer handbook of tactics chapter 17

Deadly Differences in Store Fires

• Store fires present unique challenges compared to residential fires due to their construction and fire loading, often leading to firefighter fatalities.
• Firefighters' experience with residential fires can lead to the development of SOPs and SOGs that are not appropriate for the distinct characteristics of commercial fires.
• Commercial structures typically have higher fire loads, requiring significantly increased fire flow rates compared to residential buildings.
• Civilian life hazard is generally lower in stores because occupants are awake and able to escape, but cellars should still be thoroughly searched.
• Firefighter safety should be prioritized over aggressive searches in commercial buildings with low civilian life hazards.
• Nonresidential occupancy fires, despite low civilian risk, result in four times more firefighter deaths than residential fires.

Taxpayers: A Deadly Combination

• Taxpayers, rows of stores under one roof, can be more dangerous than single stores, particularly when combined with public assembly occupancies.
• The term "taxpayer" originated from quickly built, inexpensive structures designed to generate income to cover property taxes.
• Taxpayers are generally built of Class 3 ordinary construction and can be one or two stories high.
• Shopping centers can be considered taxpayers with a parking lot in front.
• Newer taxpayers or strip malls often use Class 2 noncombustible construction and lack cellars or basements.

Styles of Taxpayers: Old vs. New

• Older taxpayers contain a significant amount of combustible material in their construction.
• Floors, roofs, walls, and ceilings often consist of wood, with exterior walls typically made of brick or cinder block.
• Cocklofts are usually open across the entire structure, although later codes may require partitions.
• Stores were typically 20 ft wide and 50-100 ft deep, with similar-sized cellars below.
• Roof construction includes standard flat roofs, inverted roofs, metal decks on bar joists, or bowstring trusses.
• Buildings with bowstring truss roofs require immediate evacuation and establishment of collapse zones if heavy fire is present.
• Ventilation on flat or inverted roofs involves cutting an 8x8-ft hole over the fire to slow horizontal extension.
• Trench cuts on taxpayer roofs are generally impractical due to the extensive cutting required.
• Newer-style taxpayers (strip malls) often use noncombustible materials, falling into Class 2 construction.
• Lack of cellars in newer buildings leads to larger first-floor stores for accommodating storage.
• Roofs in modern strip malls are typically constructed of corrugated metal decking over unprotected steel-bar joists, with plasterboard on metal stud interior partitions.
• While the building itself has a low fire load, the materials stored inside contribute significantly to the fire hazard.
• Newer taxpayers share the risk of fire spread through the cockloft and early collapse of the unprotected steel roof.
• Steel bar joist roofs can fail in as little as 5 minutes when exposed to fire.
• FDNY advises against cutting metal deck roofs due to the dangers they pose.
• A coordinated attack involving ventilation and hose streams is key to success in fires involving noncombustible buildings.
• Applying hose streams can protect steel bar joists against failure by cooling the steel and fire fighters operating safely below.
• Stretching 1¾-in. handlines into exposed stores and examining the cockloft is important for preventing fire spread.
• Back away at least two stores in the event of heavy fire.
• Ventilation may involve removing show windows at the front, as rear and sides are typically sealed.
• Roof ventilation on bar-joist roofs should be conducted 60 ft or the width of three average stores from sagging joists.
• Lightweight wood trusses are increasingly used in newer taxpayers, but require complete evacuation if heavy fire is present.
• Master streams should be used from outside at ground level to blast the ceiling away and extinguish the fire.

General Problems with Commercial Fires

• Stores have larger, undivided areas compared to residences, facilitating rapid fire extension.
• Fire loading per square foot is often much heavier in commercial occupancies.
• Larger areas and heavier fire loads necessitate different tactics compared to house fires.
• Advanced fires in commercial buildings require large (2½-in.) handlines or master streams.
• There is little need for speed due to the rarity of civilian life hazards in store fires.
• Each engine should connect to a serviceable hydrant with soft suction or a large-diameter supply line.
• Spotting the pumper with the deck gun in line with the fire store can enable use of a preconnected master stream.
• A 2½-in. handline delivers between 250 and 325 gpm and has a reach of more than 80 ft.
• Two members can initially operate a 2½-in. line effectively, with three members providing optimal maneuverability.
• The power of the 2½-in. stream can be used to blast a hole through the ceiling to reach fire in the cockloft.
• A store of 2,000 sq ft requires about 700 gpm for knockdown.

Gaining Entry to Commercial Structures

• Forcible entry is most challenging at the rear due to heavy security measures.
• Rear doors often open outward and are secured with Fox Police locks or drop-in bars.
• Breaching a hole through the cement-block wall may be faster than forcing the door in severe cases.
• Assign a ladder company to the rear of all serious taxpayer fires.
• Designate stores with letters from left to right to coordinate ventilation with crews entering from the front.
• Plate glass doors and show windows at the front are often easily accessible for entry.
• Look for signs of an impending backdraft before breaking any glass.
• Delay forcible entry and ventilation at ground level until members on the roof have created a vent hole.
• Position and charge 2½-in. hoselines and use them to blow the windows in after roof venting is assured.
• Vented show windows must also stand off to the side of the building line as parapet wall collapse could precipitate.
• Forcibly enter the gates to all of the exposed stores in the row, rather than immediately entering the fire store.
• Watch out for steel plating, which can add to the collapse hazard and preventing effective ventilation.
• Create a small triangular opening in the roll-down gate, insert a 2½-in. fog nozzle, and apply water immediately for backdraft potential.
• Use through-the-lock techniques to maintain the integrity of the window and door glass where backdraft conditions are unlikely.

Store Fires: Overcoming Firefighter Traps

• Store fires differ significantly from residential fires due to ceiling height, smoke conditions, and hidden dangers.
• High ceilings can conceal extreme heat and unburned fuel gas, creating a risk of ignition.
• Use a pike pole or hook to check ceiling height and conditions before entering the store.
• Bring 10-ft pike poles to reach the roof deck and check for fire in the cockloft.

Fires in a Ground-Floor Store

• Use large (2½-in.) lines for moderate fires and vent the cockloft to prevent horizontal extension.
• Position handlines in exposed stores and use a third medium-size line for overhauling.
• For heavy fires, position handlines ahead of the cockloft fire and rapidly pull ceilings of the exposed stores.
• Use a preconnected deck pipe or other master stream to attack the main body of fire.
• Use aerial platforms to darken down the cocklofts of adjoining stores.
• Emphasize getting ahead of the fire and working back, focusing on exposures.
• Avoid being drawn immediately to the open burning store and neglecting the exposures.
• Fire traveling in the cockloft is best attacked with the platform’s master stream from below.

Cockloft Fires: A Major Threat

• Fires in the cockloft are major causes of total loss in taxpayer buildings, facilitated by rapid fire spread.
• Multiple suspended ceilings, potential backdrafts, and difficulty in locating the fire seat compound the problem.
• Ceiling and parapet collapse pose significant dangers to firefighters.
• Create preliminary ceiling openings at the entrance to each area with a suspended ceiling.
• Use a TIC to check the ceiling area and make new holes every 8–10 ft.
• Be aware of potential backdrafts if no fire is visible but a great deal of heat is felt.
• Directing a stream up into a cockloft from the floor through a narrow opening often worsens conditions.
• Get personnel with hooks inside to get a substantial hole open before you begin to apply water.
• Use a cockloft nozzle in a 12x12 inch hole to effectively attack cockloft fires.
• Cellar pipes and distributors can be used to put water into otherwise inaccessible areas below the roof.
• Prepare for the fire breaking through the roof, and inform the IC of nearby taller exposures.
• Use a master stream from an elevating platform basket directed from the sidewalk through the front display windows and into the cockloft.
• Remove advertising signs along the front parapet to gain access to the cockloft on very old taxpayers.
• Cut away sections of the fascia on newer strip malls with an metal overhangs, especially if you suspect it interconnects with cocklofts.
• Parapet walls are prone to collapse due to expansion of heated steel I-beams.
• The entire sidewalk on all frontages should be considered within the collapse zone during serious fires.
• Parapet walls can be given a lot of lateral reinforcement which can cause a collapse.
• For interior wall collapses, know what is likely to happen and take actions to cut it off at the start.

Personnel-Intensive Operations

• Taxpayer fires are very personnel-intensive operations due to the many remote areas involved.
• Roof operations demand at least four members with specialized tools, and additional personnel to force entry, pull ceilings, and operate hose lines.
• Lack of resources can doom the operation before it even begins.
• Make the most of available resources, prioritizing a rapid line, even if it is smaller.
• Officers should devise a strategy that will work for each particular occasion.