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Questions and Answers
Which of the following statements accurately describes the relationship between entropy and spontaneity?
Which of the following statements accurately describes the relationship between entropy and spontaneity?
- A decrease in entropy always leads to a spontaneous reaction.
- Entropy has no impact on the spontaneity of a reaction.
- An increase in entropy is thermodynamically favorable for a reaction to proceed spontaneously. (correct)
- Spontaneous reactions always result in a decrease in the overall disorder of the system.
How does increasing the temperature affect the entropy of a system?
How does increasing the temperature affect the entropy of a system?
- It has no effect on the entropy of the system.
- It stabilizes the system, leading to zero entropy.
- It increases the entropy by increasing the average kinetic energy and freedom of motion of the particles. (correct)
- It decreases the entropy by reducing molecular motion.
Which physical state generally exhibits the highest entropy?
Which physical state generally exhibits the highest entropy?
- Gas (correct)
- Aqueous
- Solid
- Liquid
Under what condition will the concentrations of products and reactants remain constant in a chemical reaction?
Under what condition will the concentrations of products and reactants remain constant in a chemical reaction?
Which statement correctly applies the Second Law of Thermodynamics?
Which statement correctly applies the Second Law of Thermodynamics?
What does a negative value of ∆H°f indicate about a reaction?
What does a negative value of ∆H°f indicate about a reaction?
According to Le Chatelier's Principle, what happens when more reactants are added to a system at equilibrium?
According to Le Chatelier's Principle, what happens when more reactants are added to a system at equilibrium?
How does a Bronsted-Lowry acid differ from a Bronsted-Lowry base?
How does a Bronsted-Lowry acid differ from a Bronsted-Lowry base?
What is the significance of the equilibrium constant (K) in a chemical reaction?
What is the significance of the equilibrium constant (K) in a chemical reaction?
What characterizes a substance as amphoteric?
What characterizes a substance as amphoteric?
Flashcards
What is entropy?
What is entropy?
Measure of system disorder; positive change indicates increased randomness.
Which physical state has the most entropy?
Which physical state has the most entropy?
Gas > Liquid > Solid, due to molecular movement freedom.
How does temperature affect entropy?
How does temperature affect entropy?
Increase the kinetic energy and freedom of particle motion.
What is Gibbs Free Energy?
What is Gibbs Free Energy?
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What does the Second Law of Thermodynamics state?
What does the Second Law of Thermodynamics state?
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What is the Bronsted-Lowry Theory?
What is the Bronsted-Lowry Theory?
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What is a Bronsted-Lowry acid?
What is a Bronsted-Lowry acid?
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What is a Bronsted-Lowry base?
What is a Bronsted-Lowry base?
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What are Indicators?
What are Indicators?
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What is a buffer solution?
What is a buffer solution?
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Study Notes
Spontaneity
- Spontaneous processes do not require energy input
- Non-spontaneous processes need energy to occur
Entropy
- Entropy measures the disorder or randomness within a system
- A positive change in entropy means the final state is more random than the initial state
- Entropy depends on the state of disorder
- Reactions are more likely to happen if they increase disorder or entropy
Factors Influencing Entropy
- Entropy is affected by physical state, amount of substance, temperature, volume, pressure, and size
- Gases exhibit the greatest entropy due to molecular freedom
Entropy by Physical State
- Solids have the least entropy because they are highly ordered
- Liquids have greater entropy than solids; molecules are more disorderly, allowing limited movement
Entropy and Amount of Substance
- More substance generally means greater entropy
- Chemical reactions with more products than reactants tend to be spontaneous
Entropy and Temperature
- Higher temperatures increase entropy by increasing kinetic energy and particle freedom
- Lowering temperature decreases entropy; at absolute zero, entropy approaches zero
Entropy and Volume, Pressure, Size
- Increased volume leads to increased entropy
- Lower pressure leads to higher entropy
- Increased size leads to increased entropy
Spontaneity and Thermodynamics
- Enthalpy (H), Entropy (S) and Gibbs Free Energy (G) are key factors in spontaneity
- Enthalpy measures heat energy absorbed or released
- Entropy measures randomness, and Gibbs Free Energy measures available energy for chemical transformations
Second Law of Thermodynamics
- Any spontaneous process increases the universe's entropy
Gibbs Free Energy
- Gibbs Free Energy combines enthalpy and entropy to determine spontaneity
- At constant temperature and pressure, Gibbs Free Energy is defined using the Second Law of Thermodynamics
- Gibbs Free Energy measures the minimum work required to drive a spontaneous reaction
Gibbs Free Energy and Spontaneity
- ΔG < 0 indicates an exergonic, spontaneous reaction favoring products
- ΔG > 0 indicates an endergonic, non-spontaneous reaction favoring reactants
- ΔG = 0 indicates equilibrium; product and reactant concentrations remain constant
Entropy Changes
- (+) ΔS indicates an increase in randomness
- (-) ΔS indicates a decrease in randomness
Enthalpy Changes
- negative ΔH°f means energy is released (exothermic)
- positive ΔH°f means energy is absorbed (endothermic)
Equilibrium State
- Equilibrium represents a balanced state
Chemical Reactions
- Chemical reactions involve reactants forming products
- Reactions can be natural or synthetic
Reversible Reactions
- Reversible reactions, indicated by a double-headed arrow, occur spontaneously in both directions
Reversible Reaction Processes
- Forward reaction describes reactants forming products
- Reverse reaction describes products forming reactants
Chemical Reaction Balance
- A reaction's forward progress is balanced by its reverse progress
Law of Mass Action
- The Law of Mass Action/Equilibrium Constant relates reactant and product concentrations
Equilibrium Constant (K)
- K is the ratio of product to reactant concentrations at equilibrium, each raised to their stoichiometric coefficients
- K determines the "position" of equilibrium, predicting reaction direction and product formation extent
Equilibrium Constant Values
- A large equilibrium constant favors product formation
- A small equilibrium constant favors reactants
Le Chatelier's Principle
- If a system at equilibrium experiences stress, it shifts to relieve that stress
- Shifts can be caused by adding reactants (shifts forward to produce more products) or removing products (shifts forward to replace missing product)
Boyle's Law
- Changing volume or pressure affects equilibrium
Acids and Bases Importance
- Acids and Bases play a role in different environments
- Substances can be acidic, basic, or neutral based on ion concentrations
Acids
- Acids have a greater concentration of hydronium ions than hydroxide ions
Bases
- Bases have a lesser concentration of hydronium ions than hydroxide ions
Neutral Substances
- Neutral substances have equal concentrations of hydronium and hydroxide ions
Acid Properties
- Acids have a sour taste
- Acids turn litmus paper red
- Acids have a pH less than 7
- Acids react with active metals to produce hydrogen gas
- Acids can burn skin due to reactions with skin proteins and water
- Acids occur in solid, liquid, or gas forms
Base Properties
- Bases have a bitter taste
- Bases turn litmus paper blue
- Bases have a pH greater than 7
- Bases react with fats or oils to form soap and glycerol
- Bases feel slippery or soapy due to reactions with skin oils
- Bases occur in solid or liquid forms
Bronsted-Lowry Theory
- Describes acid-base interactions via PROTON TRANSFER
- A Bronsted-Lowry acid donates a proton (H⁺)
- A Bronsted-Lowry base accepts a proton (H⁺)
Acid-Base Pairs
- When an acid or base dissolves in water, a conjugate acid-base pair forms
- Monoprotic acids donate one H⁺
- Diprotic acids donate two H⁺
- Polyprotic acids donate three or more H⁺
Water Properties as Acid-Base
- Water is amphoteric, acting as both an acid and a base
- Water is a weak electrolyte that slightly ionizes into hydrogen and hydroxide ions
pH Measurement
- pH indicates acidity
- pH means "potential of hydrogen” or “power of hydrogen”
- pH was developed in 1909 by Soren Peter Lauritz Sorensen
- The body functions best within a pH of 7.0 to 7.8
pH Indicators
- Indicators determine if a solution is acidic or basic by changing color at the pH level
- Phenolphthalein is an indicator used in acid-base titrations, turning pink in basic solutions and is colorless in acidic solutions
Litmus Paper
- Litmus paper tests solution acidity or basicity
- Blue litmus paper turns red in acidic conditions
- Red litmus paper turns blue in basic or alkaline conditions
Natural Indicators
- Natural indicators, like FLAVIN, change colors with hydrogen ion concentration
Quantitative
- pH meters measure hydrogen ion concentration
Universal pH Indicator
- Universal pH indicators change into a range of colors and determine solution pH
Numeric pH Scale
- The pH scale specifies aqueous solution acidity or basicity
pH Values
- pH
- pOH > 7 indicates acidity
- pH = 0 and pOH - 0 indicates neutrality
- pH > 7 and pOH < 7 indicates basicity
Second Law of Thermodynamics
- Spontaneous processes include drying leaves, rusting iron, and radioactive decay
- Irreversible processes include preparing NaCl solutions, forming frost, and melting ice
Chemical Equilibrium
- Equilibrium is achieved when the amounts of added substances become stable
- Dissolving NaOH in water is exothermic, releasing heat and causing a temperature increase
- Exothermic reactions are spontaneous
Acids Bases Strengths
- Weak acids include acetic acid (CH₃COOH), carbonic acid (H₂CO₃), and hydrofluoric acid (HF)
- Weak bases include ammonia (NH₃), sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO₃), and lithium hydroxide (LiOH)
Strong Acids
- Strong acids include perchloric acid (HClO₄), sulfuric acid (H₂SO₄), and hydrochloric acid (HCl)
Metal Hydroxides
- Metal hydroxides include sodium hydroxide (NaOH), potassium hydroxide (KOH), calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)₂), lithium hydroxide (LiOH), and barium hydroxide (Ba(OH)₂)
Buffer Solutions
- Buffers maintain pH when small amounts of acids or bases are added
- Consist of a weak acid/conjugate base or weak base/conjugate acid pair
- Buffers play a role in bodily fluids
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