Chapter 11

Speech Functions

• Phatic Function - The primary function of the initial exchange about the weather in Example 1 serves a phatic function, which expresses solidarity and empathy rather than conveying information.
• Directive Function - An utterance like "Could you please open the window?" serves primarily as a directive function, attempting to get someone to do something.
• Poetic Function - The poetic function focuses on the aesthetic features of language, such as in poetry, slogans, or rhymes.
• Metalinguistic Function - Saying "Hegemony is not a common word" is an example of the metalinguistic function, which comments on language itself.
• Referential Function - The referential function is focused on conveying information.
• Expressive Function - The utterance "I'm feeling great today" primarily serves the expressive function, as it expresses the speaker's feelings.

Directives

• Factors Influencing Directive Forms - Social distance between participants, relative status of participants, and formality of the context influence choice of directive forms.
• Imperatives - Imperatives are more likely to be used between people who know each other well or to subordinates but not by subordinates to superiors.
• Indirect Directives - A declarative utterance like "It's cold in here" can be interpreted as a hint to close the window, acting as an indirect directive.

Politeness

• Negative Politeness - Negative politeness involves paying respect and avoiding intrusion, acknowledging social distance and status differences.
• Positive Politeness - Using first names in addressing someone is generally considered an example of positive politeness, minimizing social distance and expressing solidarity.
• Solidarity - Shared attitudes and values emphasizing closeness contribute to a sense of solidarity.
• Address Forms - Example 20 highlights the complexity and variability in address usage based on context.
• Cross-Cultural Politeness - Different cultures have varying norms and ways of expressing speech functions, which can lead to misunderstandings.

Cultural Variations in Communication

• Food Refusal - Refusing food initially can be polite in some cultures, such as parts of India and Taiwan.
• "Bring a Plate" - In New Zealand culture, "Bring a plate" means guests should bring food to share.
• Maori Greeting Ritual - The "hongi" is the pressing of noses between hosts and visitors in a formal Maori greeting.
• Phone Calls - Different cultures have different norms for closing telephone conversations, as shown in the example of the German professor's farewell.

Key Concepts

• Linguistic Politeness - Linguistic politeness refers to the use of discourse strategies to maintain social harmony.
• Phatic Communion - Phatic communion describes utterances that serve a social function of maintaining relationships rather than providing information.
• Threats in Directives - Even young children understand that threats can be more effective than direct directives in some situations.
• Imperatives and Context - Imperatives can be interpreted differently based on the context, status of speaker and listener, and level of formality.
• Positive Politeness Strategies - Positive politeness strategies aim to emphasize shared values and minimize social distance, often through informal language, expressions of friendliness, and humor.
• Cross-Cultural Misunderstandings - Misunderstandings can arise in cross-cultural communication because different cultures express the same speech acts differently.

Imperatives & Politeness

• Imperatives are commands or requests, but they can be received differently based on tone, intonation, and context.
• While some cultures consider direct refusals impolite, using indirect language or excuses is often preferred to avoid offense.

Speech Function

• Commissives are speech acts that commit the speaker to future actions, such as promises, vows, or threats.
• Directives are used to attempt to get someone to do something, such as commands or requests.
• Metalinguistic utterances comment on language itself, referring to grammar or vocabulary.
• Expressive utterances express the speaker's feelings or emotions.
• Poetic speech functions focus on the aesthetic features of language.

Address Forms

• When determining how to address someone, the first factor to consider is whether they are a child or an adult.
• In modern Western societies, solidarity (social distance) tends to be more important than status in determining address forms.
• Age can override social status, with adults using first names to younger people.
• In many cultures, using honorifics or titles when addressing older people shows respect.

Politeness Strategies

• Positive politeness emphasizes solidarity and minimizes social distance.
• Negative politeness recognizes and respects social distance and status differences.
• Using indirect language or hints can be a way to minimize imposition and appear polite.
• Providing specific and truthful excuses when refusing an offer or invitation is considered polite in many cultures.
• Silence can be interpreted differently across cultures. It can convey agreement, disagreement, or respect.

Cultural Differences

• Cultural differences in politeness strategies often stem from different emphases on status vs. solidarity.
• In some cultures, silence after a proposal can be interpreted as a bad sign, indicating problems or disagreement.
• Nonverbal behaviors, such as eye contact and posture, can have different meanings across cultures which can cause misunderstanding.
• Cultural norms for expressing speech functions vary across cultures.

Understanding Cultural Norms

• Understanding cultural norms is crucial in cross-cultural communication to avoid misunderstandings and unintended offense.
• Learning to be polite in another language involves understanding the cultural context and social values behind politeness strategies.
• It is essential to understand the different interpretations of "face" in different cultures.
• Greeting rituals and customs are deeply rooted in culture and can vary significantly.

Specific Examples

• The chapter mentions "bring a plate" as an example of a phrase with a culturally specific meaning.
• The traditional Maori greeting includes stages such as the Karanga (call of welcome), Whaikoorero (speeches), and Wero (challenge).
• The study of directives among male migrant agricultural workers found that they primarily used imperatives regardless of context.

Key Findings

• Politeness is a complex concept influenced by cultural norms, social values, and individual perceptions.
• Effective communication across cultures requires understanding the nuances of language use and social expectations.
• Politeness strategies can evolve during a conversation, reflecting changes in social relationships.
• Learning another language involves understanding the cultural context and social values behind politeness strategies.### Speech Acts
• Marriage vows are classified as performatives or declarations because saying the words completes the action.

Politeness

• Negative politeness involves indirect and polite phrasing to minimize imposition and show respect.
• Cultural norms can lead to misinterpretations, making someone's behavior appear rude even if no offense is intended.
• Sociolinguistic assumptions are made unconsciously during interactions, such as assuming a certain response to a greeting or interpreting phrases based on cultural context.
• Overgeneralizing one's own cultural norms when learning a new language can lead to politeness faux pas.

Sociolinguistic Norms

• Mutual use of Title Last Name (TLN) in address terms signifies formality and respect between individuals.
• "Ladies a plate, gentlemen a crate" is a New Zealand expression meaning women bring food contributions, men bring beer.
• Different cultures have specific norms regarding appropriate discourse topics in different contexts, like family dinners.
• Politeness conventions related to directives vary across cultures, as seen in the example of waiting for instructions on seating arrangements.
• Being polite requires understanding social distance (solidarity) and relative power (status) within social relationships.