Spanish Political Divisions in the 19th Century

Spanish Political Divisions in the 19th Century

• Two opposing visions for Spain clashed, one rooted in the past and the other looking towards the future.
• This clash led to a series of Carlists Wars throughout the 19th century.

The Reign of Fernando VII

• Fernando VII, a Bourbon monarch, ruled Spain in the early 1800s characterized by absolutist governance.
• He faced challenges during the Spanish War of Independence.
• Fernando VII initially struggled to produce an heir but eventually had a daughter, Isabel, with his second wife, María Cristina de Borbón.
• In 1832, facing illness, Fernando considered sharing power between María Cristina and his brother, Carlos María Isidro de Borbón.
• Upon recovery, Fernando designated his daughter Isabel as his direct heir, modifying the law of succession through the Pragmatic Sanction.
• This change nullified the Salic Law, which previously prohibited female succession to the throne.
• Supporters of Carlos, known as Carlists, viewed the change in the law of succession as illegitimate.

Carlist Ideology and Support

• Carlists supported Carlos María Isidro de Borbón's claim to the throne, advocating for absolutism and traditional laws.
• They defended regional autonomy, symbolized by fueros (local rights and laws) in regions such as Navarre and the Basque Country.
• Their ideology was encapsulated in the motto "Dios, Patria, Fuero, y Rey" (God, Fatherland, Fuero, and King).
• Carlists drew support from rural areas, including small landowners, peasants, some nobles, and members of the lower clergy.
• The movement gained strength in northern Spain, particularly in the Basque Country and Navarre, known for religious conservatism and defense of traditional socio-economic structures.
• Other areas of Carlist support included parts of Catalonia, Castile, and Galicia.

Isabeline Position

• The Isabelinos supported Isabel II, daughter of Fernando VII, under the regency of her mother, María Cristina, until Isabel II came of age.
• They aimed to establish a more constitutional monarchy, limiting the power of the monarchy and the clergy.
• The Isabelinos were backed by the high nobility, high-ranking military officers, the ecclesiastical hierarchy, and liberals who sought to end the Old Regime.

International Involvement and Support

• Carlos received support with weapons and funding from absolutist European powers such as Austria, Russia, and Prussia.
• Isabel II was supported by the United Kingdom, France, and Portugal, who were interested in promoting moderate liberalism in Spain.

The First Carlist War (1833-1840)

• Fernando VII died in 1833, leading to Carlos V proclaiming himself successor to the Spanish throne from Portugal in the Abrantes Manifesto.
• Isabel II was proclaimed Queen of Spain on October 25th, marking the beginning of the First Carlist War.
• Carlists, with a solid base in rural northern Spain, particularly in the Basque-Navarre regions and parts of Catalonia and Aragon, adopted guerrilla tactics.
• Military figures such as Tomás de Zumalacárregui and Ramón Cabrera rose to prominence, forming better-structured armies.

Military Structure and Forces

• The Spanish army, or Isabeline troops, consisted of a regular army with 65,000 men.
• Provincial militias totaled 35,000, with limited presence in regions with foral regimes.
• Additional forces included 15,000 men from units like carabineros and the Royal Navy Brigade.
• During the First Carlist War, the Isabeline army mobilized approximately 330,000 men through the system of "quintas".
• They also had 55,000 volunteers and additional National Militia, although desertions were high, estimated at over 60,000.
• The Carlist army organized into three main fronts: the Northern Carlist Army, the Carlist Army of the Maestrazgo, and the Carlist Army of Catalonia.
• The Northern Carlist Army formed battalions by region without following the traditional numbered regiment structure.
• The Carlist Army of the Maestrazgo, initially formed by volunteer uprisings, was led and consolidated by Ramón Cabrera.
• The Carlist Army of Catalonia unified with the arrival of Rafael Tristán, allowing them to confront the Isabelinos on more equal terms.

Key Figures and Turning Points

• Zumalacárregui's military skill was noted, but his death in 1835 during the siege of Bilbao weakened the Carlist position in the north.
• Baldomero Espartero emerged as a distinguished leader on the Isabeline side.
• His victory at the Battle of Luchana in 1836 broke the Carlist siege of Bilbao, reaffirming liberal control over industrial and urban areas.
• The conflict in the north ended with the Vergara Convention in 1839, negotiated between Carlist General Rafael Maroto and Espartero.
• It allowed Carlist officers to integrate into the liberal army and maintained fueros in the Basque provinces and Navarre.
• Radical Carlists led by Cabrera in the Maestrazgo continued resistance until their final defeat in 1840.
• The Carlist defeat meant Isabel II remained on the Spanish throne, while Carlos fled to London.

The Second Carlist War (1846-1849)

• The Second Carlist War arose after the Vergara Convention, with many Carlists seeking refuge in France while others continued guerrilla activities in Catalonia and other parts of the country.
• Carlos V abdicated in favor of his eldest son, Carlos Luis de Borbón y Braganza, also known as Carlos VI.
• Proposed marriage between Carlos Luis and Isabel II was rejected, due to Carlist demands and Isabel's personal feelings.
• Conflict was mainly concentrated in Catalonia, with some outbreaks in other regions; Carlists lacked support and resources.
• The war declined after 1848 and ended in 1849 with a clear defeat for the Carlists.
• Carlist leaders capitulated and dispersed, with many exiling, including Ramón Cabrera.
• The government of Isabel III offered pardons and amnesties to Carlist combatants to facilitate peace.

Third Carlist War (1872-1876)

• Carlists sought to establish a traditionalist monarchy amidst Spain's political instability and internal struggles.
• Dissatisfaction with Isabel II led to the Glorious Revolution in 1868, ending her reign.
• Amadeo I of Savoy was chosen as King of Spain but faced opposition from Carlists led by Carlos VII.
• The Carlist uprising began in April 1872, mainly in northern Spain and Catalonia, with limited international support.
• Carlos VII crossed the border on May 2 but retreated after facing resistance, leading to re-escalation of the conflict.
• The proclamation of the First Republic in 1873 further fueled Carlist rebellion.

Key Events and Figures

• The siege of Bilbao was notable, with the city resisting Carlist bombardment due to effective urban defenses.
• Loss of Morella and Villahhermosa in the Maestrazgo diminished Carlist morale and fighting capability.
• Fragmentation of forces in Catalonia and recognition of Alfonso XII as King of Spain weakened the Carlist cause.
• The lack of resources and external support undermined Carlist ability to continue, leading to their defeat on February 28, 1876.
• Following the end of the war, some Carlists integrated into nationalist parties in the Basque Country and Catalonia.