Software Development Concepts

• Biology studies life and living organisms, including their structure, function, growth, origin, evolution, distribution, and taxonomy.
• Human physiology studies how the human body functions, exploring mechanical, physical, and biochemical aspects of humans, their organs, and cells.

Levels of Organization in the Human Body

• The human body is organized hierarchically.
• Atoms combine to form molecules like proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, and nucleic acids at the chemical level.
• Molecules form organelles like the nucleus and mitochondria, which comprise cells, the body's basic units at the cellular level.
• Similar cells and surrounding materials form tissues; the four basic types are epithelium, connective tissue, muscle tissue, and nervous tissue at the tissue level.
• Different tissues combine to form organs like the heart, stomach, and brain at the organ level.
• Organs working together to perform specific functions form organ systems like the digestive, cardiovascular, and nervous systems at the system level.
• All organ systems working together to maintain life constitute the organism, i.e., the human body at the organismal level.

Basic Life Processes

• Metabolism includes all chemical reactions in the body, including anabolism (building up) and catabolism (breaking down).
• Responsiveness is the ability to detect and respond to internal or external environmental changes.
• Movement includes motion of the whole body, individual organs, single cells, and even organelles inside cells.
• Growth is an increase in size and complexity, due to an increase in cell number, cell size, or surrounding material amount.
• Differentiation is the process by which unspecialized cells become specialized.
• Reproduction is the formation of new cells or new organisms.
• Homeostasis is maintaining a relatively stable internal environment, despite external or internal changes.

Homeostasis

• Homeostasis is crucial for cell survival.
• It is regulated by feedback systems, consisting of a receptor, a control center, and an effector.
• The Receptor monitors changes and sends input to the control center.
• The Control Center sets the range of values, evaluates input from receptors, and generates output commands when needed.
• The Effector receives commands and produces a response that changes the controlled condition.
• Negative Feedback reverses changes; for example, if body temperature rises, negative feedback lowers it back to normal.
• Positive Feedback reinforces changes; for example, during childbirth, oxytocin causes contractions, stimulating more oxytocin release until birth.

Organ Systems Overview

• The Integumentary System protects the body, regulates temperature, and synthesizes vitamin D; includes skin, hair, and nails.
• The Skeletal System provides support, protects organs, and enables movement; includes bones and joints.
• The Muscular System produces movement, maintains posture, and generates heat; includes skeletal, smooth, and cardiac muscles.
• The Nervous System controls and coordinates bodily functions and responds to stimuli; includes the brain, spinal cord, and nerves.
• The Endocrine System regulates functions by releasing hormones; includes glands like the pituitary, thyroid, and adrenal glands.
• The Cardiovascular System transports oxygen, nutrients, and hormones, and removes waste; includes the heart, blood vessels, and blood.
• The Lymphatic System returns fluids to the bloodstream and protects against disease; includes lymphatic vessels, lymph nodes, and lymphoid organs.
• The Respiratory System exchanges oxygen and carbon dioxide; includes the lungs, trachea, and bronchi.
• The Digestive System breaks down food, absorbs nutrients, and eliminates waste; includes the mouth, esophagus, stomach, intestines, liver, and pancreas.
• The Urinary System filters blood, regulates fluid and electrolyte balance, and eliminates waste; includes the kidneys, ureters, bladder, and urethra.
• The Reproductive System produces gametes and hormones and enables reproduction; includes male and female reproductive organs.

Cellular Physiology

• Cells are the basic structural and functional units, consisting of a plasma membrane, cytoplasm, and nucleus.
• The Plasma Membrane is the outer boundary, controlling substance movement in and out of the cell.
• The Cytoplasm is the intracellular fluid containing organelles.
• The Nucleus contains DNA and controls cellular activities.
• Membrane Transport involves substance movement across the plasma membrane via diffusion, osmosis, active transport, and vesicular transport.
• Cell Communication occurs through chemical signals like hormones, neurotransmitters, and local mediators.

Tissue Types

• Epithelial Tissue covers surfaces, lines cavities, and forms glands; functions include protection, absorption, secretion, and filtration.
• Connective Tissue supports, connects, and separates tissues and organs; includes bone, cartilage, blood, and adipose tissue.
• Muscle Tissue produces movement; types include skeletal, smooth, and cardiac muscle.
• Nervous Tissue conducts electrical signals and transmits information; found in the brain, spinal cord, and nerves.

Muscle Physiology

• Skeletal Muscle is responsible for voluntary movements; it consists of muscle fibers that contract in response to nerve impulses.
• Smooth Muscle is found in internal organ walls and blood vessels; it is responsible for involuntary movements like peristalsis and vasoconstriction.
• Cardiac Muscle is found in the heart and pumps blood.
• Muscle Contraction occurs when muscle fibers shorten, generating tension through actin and myosin interaction.

Nervous System Physiology

• Neurons are the basic functional units; they transmit electrical signals called action potentials.
• Synapses are junctions where signals are transmitted between neurons.
• Neurotransmitters are chemical messengers that transmit signals across synapses.
• The Central Nervous System (CNS) includes the brain and spinal cord; it integrates and processes information and controls bodily functions.
• The Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) includes all nervous tissue outside the CNS; it transmits signals between the CNS and the rest of the body.
• Sensory Receptors detect changes and transmit sensory information to the CNS.
• Motor Neurons transmit signals from the CNS to muscles and glands, causing them to contract or secrete.

Endocrine System Physiology

• Hormones are chemical messengers produced by endocrine glands and secreted into the bloodstream.
• Hormone Action involves hormones binding to receptors on target cells, triggering events that alter cellular function.
• Major Endocrine Glands include the pituitary, thyroid, adrenal glands, pancreas, and ovaries/testes.
• Hormone Regulation occurs through feedback mechanisms, ensuring stable hormone levels.

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