Socrates, Plato, and Saint Augustine

Socrates

• Socrates said that he could not teach anyone anything, and that he could only make people think
• Socratic/Dialectic Method involves engaging people in discussions to expose misconceptions and guide them toward understanding
• The Delphi Oracle named Socrates the Wisest of All Men because he knew that he did not know

Plato (Aristocles)

• Philosophy is a way of life, not just analysis
• The Tripartite Soul consists of:
  • Reason, which is rational and seeks truth
  • Spirit, which is neutral and has willpower
  • Appetites, which are irrational and involve desires
• The Allegory of the Cave symbolizes ignorance, and true knowledge comes from intellectual enlightenment
• Theory of Forms suggests true reality is non-physical and understood intellectually
• Dualism
  • Realm of Shadows (Body) is imperfect and changing
  • Realm of Forms (Mind/Soul) is eternal, unchanging, and perfect

Saint Augustine of Hippo

• God is the source of truth and humans can understand eternal truths
• Sinfulness of Man: Free will causes evil, but moral goodness is possible through God's grace
• Hierarchy of Love:
  • Love of Physical Objects leads to greed
  • Love for Others leads to jealousy
  • Love for Self leads to pride
  • Love for God leads to supreme virtue and true happiness

René Descartes

• René Descartes is known as the Father of Modern Philosophy
• Cartesian Method uses reason to attain absolute truths
• Two Mental Powers:
  • Intuition is a direct grasp of truth
  • Deduction is step-by-step reasoning
• Cogito, ergo sum translates to "I think, therefore I am"
• Mind-Body Dualism suggests that the mind controls the body like a machine

John Locke

• Tabula Rasa is a blank slate, with no innate ideas. Knowledge comes from experience
• Three Laws:
  • Law of Opinion is based on virtues and vices dictated by society.
  • Civil Law is enforced by authorities
  • Divine Law is set by God and must be followed

Immanuel Kant

• Transcendental Apperception states that the self is a unity of experiences
• Moral Duty states that humans must strive for perfection
• Duty is seen as a divine command

Paul & Patricia Churchland

• Neurophilosophy states the self is the brain
• There is no distinct "mind"—only the brain exists
• Human nature is shaped by experiences and is constantly evolving

David Hume

• Empiricist & Skeptic states knowledge comes from experience.
• Types of Perceptions:
  • Impressions are direct sensory experiences and are stronger
  • Ideas are recollections of impressions and are weaker
• Associative Principles:
  • Resemblance
  • Contiguity
  • Causation involves realizing our idea of cause and effect is not necessarily real
• There is no permanent self. The self is a bundle of experiences, not an unchanging entity

Gilbert Ryle

• Criticized Mind-Body Dualism, calling it the "Ghost in the Machine" fallacy
• Two Types of Knowledge:
  • Knowing-that pertains to factual knowledge
  • Knowing-how pertains to practical skills

Maurice Merleau-Ponty

• The human body is the primary site for knowing the world
• Consciousness and the body are interconnected and we interpret the world through perception and reasoning

The Self According to Psychology

• Psychology comes from the Greek words "Psyche" (mind, soul, spirit) and "Logos" (knowledge, study)
• Aristotle is recognized as the Father of traditional psychology (when it was a branch of philosophy)
• Wilhelm Wundt is regarded as the Father of modern psychology and established the first psychology lab in 1879

Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) – Psychoanalytic Theory

• Three Levels of Consciousness:
  • Conscious: Thoughts we are aware of
  • Pre-conscious: Memories we can recall
  • Unconscious: Hidden desires, instincts
• Three Parts of the Mind:
  • Id: Pleasure principle (immediate gratification)
  • Ego: Reality principle (rational decision-maker)
  • Superego: Morals and values (conscience)
• Psychosexual Stages of Development:
  • Oral Stage (0-1 year): Focus on mouth (sucking, biting)
  • Anal Stage (1-3 years): Toilet training (control issues)
  • Phallic Stage (3-6 years): Oedipus/Electra complex (attachment to opposite-sex parent)
  • Latency Stage (6-puberty): Focus on social skills
  • Genital Stage (Puberty-adulthood): Focus on sexual relationships

Erik Erikson (1902-1994) – Psychosocial Development

• Personality develops through 8 stages, each with a key conflict:
  • Trust vs. Mistrust (Infancy): Basic trust from caregivers
  • Autonomy vs. Shame/Doubt (Toddler): Developing independence
  • Initiative vs. Guilt (Preschool): Exploring abilities
  • Industry vs. Inferiority (School Age): Competence in school and social life
  • Identity vs. Role Confusion (Adolescence): Developing self-identity
  • Intimacy vs. Isolation (Young Adult): Forming close relationships
  • Generativity vs. Stagnation (Middle Age): Contributing to society
  • Integrity vs. Despair (Old Age): Reflecting on life

Jean Piaget (1896-1980) – Cognitive Development

• Children actively build knowledge through experiences
• Schemas are mental frameworks that help us organize knowledge
• Adaptation involves adjusting schemas through:
  • Assimilation involves adding new info to existing schemas
  • Accommodation involves changing schemas when new info doesn't fit
• Stages of Cognitive Development:
  • Sensorimotor (0-2 years): Object permanence develops
  • Preoperational (2-7 years): Egocentric thinking, symbolic play
  • Concrete Operational (7-11 years): Logical thinking, conservation concept
  • Formal Operational (11+ years): Abstract reasoning, problem-solving

William James (1842-1910) – The Self

• William James is the Father of American Psychology
• Two Aspects of Self:
  • I-Self is the "knower" (subjective, personal experience)
  • Me-Self is the "known" (how we describe ourselves)
• Three Aspects of "Me-Self":
  • Material Self includes physical aspects and possessions
  • Social Self involves how others perceive us
  • Spiritual Self includes internal values and beliefs

Carl Rogers (1902-1987) – Humanistic Psychology

• The Self:
  • Self-Concept is how we see ourselves
  • Ideal Self is who we aspire to be
• Congruence exists when self-concept aligns with reality
• Incongruence exists when there's a gap between self-concept and reality
• Unconditional Positive Regard is accepting others without conditions

Murray Bowen – Family Systems Theory

• Differentiated Self involves balancing togetherness & individuality
• True Self vs. False Self:
  • True Self is authentic, spontaneous, and self-aware
  • False Self hides real self due to social pressure

Social Psychology

• Social Psychology studies how individuals think, influence, and relate to others
• Social Psychology vs. Sociology:
  • Sociology studies groups and societies.
  • Social Psychology studies individuals within groups.
• Key Concepts:
  • Hindsight Bias involves the "I knew it all along" phenomenon
  • Spotlight Effect is overestimating how much others notice us
  • Illusion of Transparency states that thinking others can easily read our emotions

Self and Social Behavior

• Self-Concept is what we know about ourselves
• Self-Schema involves beliefs that guide self-perception
• Social Comparison involves evaluating ourselves by comparing with others
• Looking-Glass Self is seeing ourselves based on how we think others perceive us

Individualism vs. Collectivism

• Individualism prioritizes personal goals, independent self
• Collectivism prioritizes group goals, interdependent self