Sociology Exam 2 Study Guide

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Questions and Answers

What is the primary role of socialization?

To familiarize individuals with the norms of a social group. (correct)

To prepare individuals for military service.

To promote individualism.

To eliminate cultural differences.

What are the three primary goals of socialization according to Jeffrey J. Arnett?

Impulse control, preparation for social roles, and cultivating shared values.

What does it mean to say 'Society makes us fully human'?

It means that socialization prepares individuals to participate and function within their communities.

Define characteristics of total institutions.

Total institutions involve living in close quarters with others, shared beliefs, and reduced independence. Signup and view all the answers

Explain what globalization is.

Globalization is the process by which businesses develop international influence or operate on an international scale. Signup and view all the answers

Why are multinational companies attracted to developing nations?

Lower operational costs and access to inexpensive labor. Signup and view all the answers

Explain reasons for extreme poverty and social inequality in societies.

Poverty and inequality arise from resource concentration in wealthy nations, structural inequalities, and historical exploitation. Signup and view all the answers

How does social class impact people's life chances?

Social class affects access to resources like healthcare, education, and opportunities, determining overall quality of life. Signup and view all the answers

What is the difference between individual and structural explanations for poverty?

Individual explanations focus on personal failure, while structural explanations consider economic system flaws. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is an example of a structural explanation for poverty?

Poor school districts in low-income areas. Signup and view all the answers

What is socialization?

The process through which people are taught to be proficient members of a society. Signup and view all the answers

What does the life course refer to?

The connection between people's personal attributes, the roles they occupy, the life events they experience, and the social and historical context of these events. Signup and view all the answers

What is gender socialization?

The process by which societal expectations of how boys and girls should behave are reinforced. Signup and view all the answers

What is resocialization?

The process whereby old behaviors that were helpful in a previous role are removed because they are no longer of use. Signup and view all the answers

What are total institutions?

Institutions where inmates or military soldiers live a controlled lifestyle and undergo total resocialization. Signup and view all the answers

Match the following stages of development according to Jean Piaget's cognitive theory:

Sensorimotor = 1 Preoperational = 2 Concrete operational = 3 Formal operational = 4 Signup and view all the answers

What is Cooley's 'looking glass self'?

The self-image that results from our interpretation of other people's views of us. Signup and view all the answers

What is anticipatory socialization?

The preparation for future life roles. Signup and view all the answers

What does the term 'symbol' refer to?

A thing that represents or stands for something else, especially a material object representing something abstract. Signup and view all the answers

What is a degradation ceremony?

A process where new members lose aspects of their old identity and are given new identities. Signup and view all the answers

What is meant by 'nature' in the context of self-development?

The influence of our genetic makeup on self-development. Signup and view all the answers

What is meant by 'nurture' in self-development?

The role that our social environment plays in self-development. Signup and view all the answers

What is moral development?

The way people learn what is 'good' and 'bad' in society. Signup and view all the answers

What are agents of socialization?

Groups or social contexts within which processes of socialization take place. Signup and view all the answers

What defines a primary group?

A small group of people who interact over a relatively long period on a direct and personal basis. Signup and view all the answers

What defines a secondary group?

A group in which interaction is impersonal and temporary in nature. Signup and view all the answers

What are reference groups?

Groups with whom buyers identify and whose values or attitudes they adopt. Signup and view all the answers

What are group dynamics?

The ways in which individuals affect groups and the ways in which groups influence individuals. Signup and view all the answers

What is groupthink?

The tendency of group members to conform, resulting in a narrow view of some issue. Signup and view all the answers

What is a bureaucracy?

An ideal type of formal organization characterized by clear hierarchy and standardized procedures. Signup and view all the answers

What are voluntary associations?

Groups based on shared interests where joining is typically done because membership is rewarding. Signup and view all the answers

What defines formal organizations?

Organizations that are highly bureaucratized, such as schools, businesses, and governments. Signup and view all the answers

What is a dyad?

A two-member group. Signup and view all the answers

What is a triad?

A three-member group. Signup and view all the answers

What is an authoritarian leader?

A leader who issues orders and assigns tasks with a strong focus on meeting goals. Signup and view all the answers

What is conformity?

The extent to which an individual complies with group norms or expectations. Signup and view all the answers

What is a clear division of labor?

The specialization of tasks among individuals in a bureaucracy. Signup and view all the answers

What is a hierarchy of authority?

The aspect of bureaucracy that places individuals or offices in charge of others. Signup and view all the answers

What is an In-Group?

A group a person belongs to and feels is an integral part of their identity. Signup and view all the answers

What is an Out-group?

A group that an individual is not a member of and may compete with. Signup and view all the answers

What is an oligarchy?

A system where an organization is ruled by a few elites. Signup and view all the answers

What is a leadership function?

The main focus or goal of the leader. Signup and view all the answers

What constitutes a crime?

A behavior that violates official law and is punishable through formal sanctions. Signup and view all the answers

What is deviance?

A violation of established contextual, cultural, or social norms. Signup and view all the answers

What is the recidivism rate?

The percentage of former prisoners who are rearrested. Signup and view all the answers

What is differential justice?

Differences in how groups are treated in the criminal justice system. Signup and view all the answers

What is a sanction?

Official permission or approval. Signup and view all the answers

What is stigma?

A mark of disgrace associated with a particular circumstance, quality, or person. Signup and view all the answers

What is informal social control?

Unofficial forms of social control, like gossip, humiliation, and ostracism. Signup and view all the answers

What is formal social control?

Social control carried out by authorized agents. Signup and view all the answers

What is strain theory?

A theory that notes that access to socially acceptable goals plays a part in determining whether a person conforms or deviates. Signup and view all the answers

What is differential association theory?

A theory suggesting that individuals learn deviant behavior from those close to them. Signup and view all the answers

What are negative sanctions?

Punishments for violating norms. Signup and view all the answers

What are positive sanctions?

Rewards given for conforming to norms. Signup and view all the answers

What is labeling theory?

A theory that examines the ascribing of a deviant behavior to another person by members of society. Signup and view all the answers

What is mass media?

The means of distributing impersonal information to a wide audience. Signup and view all the answers

What is media globalization?

The worldwide integration of media through the cross-cultural exchange of ideas. Signup and view all the answers

What does dominant ideology mean?

A set of cultural beliefs and practices that legitimates existing powerful interests. Signup and view all the answers

What is an opinion leader?

A person within a reference group who exerts social influence on others. Signup and view all the answers

What is the narcotizing function?

A theory that suggests people become apathetic to issues inundated with news. Signup and view all the answers

What is a stereotype?

A widely held but fixed and oversimplified image of a particular type of person or thing. Signup and view all the answers

What is meant by the digital divide?

The uneven access to technology among different races, classes, and geographic areas. Signup and view all the answers

What is the knowledge gap?

An ongoing gap in information for those with less access to technology. Signup and view all the answers

What is technological diffusion?

The process by which a new technology is assimilated into a society. Signup and view all the answers

What is social inequality?

A social condition in which privileges and obligations are given to some but denied to others. Signup and view all the answers

What is social class?

A social ranking based primarily on economic position. Signup and view all the answers

What is wealth?

The total value of everything someone owns, minus their debts. Signup and view all the answers

What is income?

Money received on a regular basis for work or through investments. Signup and view all the answers

What is social mobility?

The movement between different positions within a system of social stratification. Signup and view all the answers

What is downward mobility?

The movement of an individual down the class hierarchy. Signup and view all the answers

What is upward mobility?

The movement of an individual up the class hierarchy. Signup and view all the answers

What is relative poverty?

Poverty defined according to the living standards of the majority in society. Signup and view all the answers

What is absolute poverty?

A minimum level of subsistence that no family should be expected to live below. Signup and view all the answers

What does 'feminization' of poverty refer to?

An increase in the proportion of the poor who are female. Signup and view all the answers

What is a caste system?

A social structure in which classes are determined by heredity. Signup and view all the answers

What is an underclass?

A group of people for whom poverty persists year after year across generations. Signup and view all the answers

What is social stratification?

The differentiation of society into classes based on wealth, power, production, and prestige. Signup and view all the answers

What are life chances?

The extent to which individuals have access to important societal resources. Signup and view all the answers

What is meritocracy?

A system where hiring and promotion are based on proven skills rather than nepotism or random choice. Signup and view all the answers

What is the standard of living?

The degree of wealth and material comfort available to a person or community. Signup and view all the answers

What is global stratification?

A comparison of the wealth, economic stability, status, and power of countries as a whole. Signup and view all the answers

What is a multinational corporation?

An organization that manufactures and markets products in many different countries. Signup and view all the answers

What is globalization?

The process by which businesses or other organizations develop international influence. Signup and view all the answers

What is global inequality?

The extent to which income and wealth is distributed unevenly among the world's population. Signup and view all the answers

What are the agents of socialization?

Family, school, peers, and mass media. Signup and view all the answers

How do agents of socialization shape gender socialization?

Through the influence of parents, peers, siblings, school, society, and religion. Signup and view all the answers

What is meant by the statement 'deviance is relative'?

It means that what is considered deviant depends on time, place, culture, and societal context. Signup and view all the answers

What are the characteristics of primary groups?

Small social groups sharing close, lasting relationships marked by concern and shared activities. Signup and view all the answers

What are the characteristics and processes of formal bureaucracies?

Bureaucracies have a clear hierarchy, specialization, a division of labor, and formal rules. Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

Socialization

Socialization is the process of learning and internalizing the norms, values, and roles necessary to become a functioning member of society.
Key agents of socialization include family, schools, peers, and mass media, each playing a significant role, especially during childhood.

Life Course

The life course framework connects personal attributes and roles to life events, considering social and historical contexts influencing these events.

Gender Socialization

Gender socialization involves societal expectations regarding behaviors, interests, and appearances of boys and girls, often reinforced by family, media, and educational systems.

Resocialization

Resocialization occurs when an individual sheds old behaviors and adopts new ones, often experienced when transitioning to environments like senior care facilities, boarding schools, or prisons.

Total Institutions

Total institutions, such as prisons or military environments, control all aspects of life for their inhabitants, necessitating complete resocialization.

Cognitive Development

Jean Piaget’s theory outlines cognitive development in four stages: sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational, indicating progressive cognitive abilities.

Cooley's "Looking Glass Self"

The concept of the "looking glass self" explains that self-image is developed through the perceptions and interpretations of how others see us.

Anticipatory Socialization

This involves preparing for future roles, such as couples cohabitating before marriage or new parents preparing for a child's arrival.

Symbols

Symbols are objects or representations that stand for broader concepts or ideas, often serving as a medium for communication in society.

Degradation Ceremony

This process involves new members losing their old identity and being assigned a new one, which can vary in approach from brutal to gentle.

Nature vs. Nurture

Nature refers to genetic influences on development, while nurture encompasses the role of social environments in shaping behaviors and attitudes.

Moral Development

This framework explains how individuals learn societal definitions of right and wrong, influenced by various socialization agents.

Agents of Socialization

Key groups influencing socialization include family (most significant), educational institutions, peer groups, and media.

Group Dynamics

Examines the interactions between individuals and how these interactions shape group behavior and influence individual actions.

Groupthink

A psychological phenomenon where the desire for conformity within a group leads to irrational or dysfunctional decision-making.

Bureaucracies

Defined by clear hierarchies, division of labor, and formal rules, bureaucracies are structured environments that execute laws and policies in a consistent manner.

Voluntary Associations

Organizations formed based on shared interests where membership is voluntary and often offers intangible rewards.

Primary and Secondary Groups

Primary groups are small, long-term, and personal (e.g., family, close friends), while secondary groups are larger, goal-oriented, and less personal (e.g., co-workers, classmates).

Encompasses both formal (policing, legal systems) and informal (gossip, peer pressure) mechanisms to ensure compliance with societal norms.

Deviance

Deviance refers to behaviors that violate social norms, varying significantly between cultures and contexts, and encompasses both formal and informal violations.

Labeling Theory

Suggests that deviance is not inherently a behavior but is defined by societal reactions, often leading to stigmatization.

A condition where different social groups have unequal access to resources, opportunities, and privileges, often perpetuated by systemic structures.

Social stratification categorizes societies into hierarchies based on wealth and power, affecting social mobility, which can be upward or downward.

Poverty Types

Relative poverty is based on societal standards, while absolute poverty denotes a threshold of subsistence below which survival is threatened.

Global Issues

Concepts such as globalization, global inequality, and technological diffusion reflect interconnections and disparities in wealth, resources, and access across regions and populations.

Stereotypes and Stigma

Stereotypes involve oversimplified perceptions of groups, whereas stigma refers to the disgrace attached to certain qualities or circumstances, influencing social interactions.

Conclusion

Understanding the various aspects of socialization, group dynamics, and societal constructs provides insight into human behavior and interpersonal relationships within the context of broader social systems.### The Role of Socialization
Socialization introduces individuals to societal norms and prepares them for group participation.
Starts in childhood within the family and extends through education settings.
Essential for understanding societal expectations and becoming full members of society.
Adults also engage in socialization when entering new social groups.
Transmits norms, values, beliefs, and behaviors to future members of society.

Characteristics of Total Institutions

Defined by Erving Goffman as organizations separate from mainstream society.
Residents share similar traits and often adhere to uniform dress and behavior.
Examples include boarding schools, orphanages, military organizations, juvenile detentions, and prisons.
Characterized by the total control exerted over members, reducing personal independence.
Serve various functions, such as caring for individuals or protecting society against threats.

Globalization

Recognized as a significant challenge, especially for companies in North America, Europe, and Japan.
Companies face difficulties in navigating international strategies and emerging markets.
Emergence of "institutional voids" hampers multinational companies' success in developing nations.
Businesses can benefit from lower labor costs in less developed countries due to cheaper competent staff.
Developing nations have seen rapid growth in markets, necessitating Western companies to adapt strategies.

Wealth concentration exists in affluent nations, limiting opportunities for poorer countries.
Functionalist perspective views inequality as serving social purposes, with some nations excelling in technology and globalization.
Critical sociology highlights the exploitation of peripheral nations by core nations, often through offshoring.
Symbolic interactionism focuses on the subjective experiences and definitions of poverty in different contexts.

Social class significantly influences numerous aspects of life, including health, education, and family dynamics.
Defined by wealth, income, education, occupation, and social networks.
Higher socioeconomic status (SES) correlates with better access to healthcare, education, and political influence.
Individuals from the upper class benefit from influential social networks that enhance life opportunities.

Explanations of Poverty in the United States

Individual explanations attribute poverty to personal shortcomings such as lack of work ethic or education.
Structural explanations emphasize barriers within the economic system that perpetuate poverty, like inadequate schooling or healthcare access.
Right-wing views promote the idea that addressing individual flaws can eradicate poverty, while left-wing perspectives argue for systemic changes to reduce poverty incidence.

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Prepare for your Sociology Exam 2 with this comprehensive study guide covering key concepts like socialization, life course, and gender socialization. Use these flashcards to reinforce your understanding of the processes that shape individuals within society.