Sociology Chapter 1: Perspectives

Chapter 1: Sociological Perspectives

• Sociology defined: The scientific study of society and human behavior.
• Auguste Comte's impact: Considered the "father of sociology," Comte established sociology as a scientific discipline, laying foundational ideas for the study of society.
• Positivism: Coined by Comte, positivism relies on scientific evidence (experiments/statistics) to explain societal operation.
• Sociological Imagination (C. Wright Mills): A framework for interpreting social issues beyond individual limitations.
• Anomie: Breakdown of social norms, values, and expectations within a society.
• Emile Durkheim's Impact: Helped to define and establish sociology as a field of study.
• Karl Marx's Focus: Believed history is driven by class conflict, with the upper class controlling the means of production and profits, while workers seek to overthrow them.
• Max Weber's Focus: Examined the aspects of non-rational and rational behavior in society.
• Symbolic Interactionism (Cooley & Mead): Emphasizes symbols and interactions in shaping our perception of the world.
• Industrialization: Transformation from agricultural societies to manufacturing-based economies.
• Sociobiology: Study of the biological basis of social behavior in organisms.
• Comte, Martineau, Spencer, Durkheim, DuBois, Marx, Weber, Addams, Merton, Mills (contributions): Detailed below.

Sociologists & Contributions

• Auguste Comte: Developed the Law of Three Stages: Theological, Metaphysical, and Positive.
• Harriet Martineau: Advocated for social reform and improvement for all, pioneering a feminist perspective. Translator of works of many figures in social sciences.
• Herbert Spencer: Proposed Social Darwinism, emphasizing survival of the fittest in societal development (a controversial and antiquated idea in modern contexts).
• Émile Durkheim: Analyzed modern and pre-modern societies, highlighting the importance of social solidarity and religion in pre-modern societies.
• W.E.B. Du Bois: Introduced the concepts of double consciousness and race conflict, highlighting the challenges faced by African Americans.
• Karl Marx: Emphasized class conflict as the driving force in history and the struggle for control over the means of production.
• Max Weber: Differentiated between non-rational and rational behavior and analyzed varying sources of social power.
• Jane Addams: Applied social science principles and social work, co-founding the Hull House to improve immigrant communities' lives.
• Robert Merton: Developed Strain Theory, focusing on how access to socially accepted goals influences conformity and deviance.
• C. Wright Mills: Introduced the concept of the power elite, highlighting a small group's influence over society.

Chapter 2: Culture

• Ethnocentrism: Judging other cultures by the standards of one's own.
• Cultural Universals: Common elements across all cultures (e.g., language).
• Material and Non-Material Culture: Material culture refers to physical objects, while non-material culture encompasses beliefs, values, and norms.
• High vs. Low Culture: High culture is associated with elites, while low culture represents popular culture.
• Culture Components: Symbols, language, norms.
• Language and Perception of Race/Ethnicity: Language transmits ideas about racial/ethnic superiority.
• Cultural Relativism: Understanding a culture on its own terms.
• Values, Mores, Folkways: Values are broad standards for good/bad; folkways are informal rules; mores are formal rules.
• Subcultures & Countercultures: Subcultures are groups within a larger culture; countercultures reject dominant cultural norms.
• Functionalist, Conflict, Symbolic Interactionist, Postmodern Views on Culture: Detailed below.

Chapter 3: Socialization

• Socialization: The process of learning culture and societal functioning.
• Harry Harlow and Contact Comfort: Researched the importance of caregiving and attachment.
• Anna and Isabelle Cases: Examples of the significant impact of early socialization and the importance of interaction on development.
• Sociological Theories of Human Development (Symbolic Interactionist):
• Cooley's Self-Concept: Image of self based on others' perceptions.
• Mead's Looking-Glass Self: Process of self-evaluation based on imagined perceptions of others.
• Role Taking and Stages of Self-Development: Imitation, play, game stages, and "I" & "me" concepts.
• Generalized Other: Awareness of societal expectations.
• Functionalist Perspective (primary, secondary, tertiary): Primary socialization occurs in the family, secondary in other settings, and tertiary is new contexts in adulthood.
• Conflict Perspective on Socialization: Socialization is a tool for maintaining power, perpetuating inequality, and controlling populations.
• Agents of Socialization: Family, school, peers, mass media, gender socialization, racial socialization (examples provided).
• Anticipatory Socialization: Preparing for future roles.
• Resocialization and Total Institutions: Total institutions (e.g., prison) strip and rebuild identities.
• Piaget and Stages of Cognitive Development: Four stages described, focusing on cognitive development progression.

Chapter 4: Social Structure

• Status: Socially defined position with expectations, rights, and duties.
• Master Status: Crucial for social identity and profoundly impacts an individual's life.
• Ascribed vs. Achieved Status: Ascribed statuses are assigned (e.g., sex, race); achieved are earned (e.g., profession).
• Status Symbol: Material signs signifying social status.
• Primary vs. Secondary Groups: Primary groups are intimate; secondary groups are larger and based on shared goals.
• Formal vs. Secondary Group: Formal groups are structured, while secondary groups are based on shared interests.
• Functionalist View on Social Institutions: Explains how institutions fulfill essential societal tasks, maintaining order, function of the systems.
• Manifest and Latent Functions: Manifest functions are intended consequences and latent are unintended.
• Durkheim and Anomie: Durkheim linked anomie to the breakdown of social order, primarily influenced by industrialization.
• Role Conflict, Role Strain, and Role-Playing: Examples provided.
• Importance of Peer Groups to Adolescents: Key to understanding the world and developing social skills.
• Bourgeoisie and Proletariat (Marx): Different social classes in capitalist society.

Chapter 5: Groups and Organizations

• Functionalist, Conflict, and Symbolic Interactionist Views of Social Structures and Society: Detailed above.
• Primary vs. Secondary Groups: Primary groups are long-term, intimate; secondary groups are larger and based on shared goals.
• Reference Group: A group influencing behavior and attitudes.
• In-Groups & Out-Groups: In-groups are those a person belongs to; out-groups are those they do not belong to.
• Group Conformity and Groupthink: Explained and defined.

Chapter 6: Deviance

• Deviance Defined: Behavior, beliefs, or conditions violating social norms.
• Defining Deviance: Society defines deviance through norms and social reaction.
• Functionalist View of Deviance: Deviance clarifies rules, unites groups, and promotes social change.
• Conflict Perspective Theory on Deviance: Deviance is linked to power, inequality, and the use of law to protect the interests of the wealthy.
• Examples of Informal & Formal Sanctions: Positive and negative sanctions are given for conformity or violations of norms.
• Deviance Theories (Strain, Control, Differential Association, Labeling): Explained.
• White-Collar Crime: Non-violent crimes committed by people in positions of power.

Chapter 10: Sex, Gender, & Sexuality

• Sex vs. Gender: Sex refers to biological characteristics; gender encompasses societal roles, norms, and relationships.
• Intersex, Transgender, Gender Role, Gender Identity: Defined.
• Sexism: Subordination of one sex based on assumed superiority of the other.
• Intersectionality: Intertwined social/political identities lead to unique discrimination or privileges.
• Gender Socialization: Learn gender roles from parents, peers, media.
• Functionalist, Conflict, and Feminist Perspectives on Gender Stratification: Differences provided, functionalist view it as complementary parts, conflict views power struggles while feminist views gender as a constructed system that results in inequality.
• Human Capital Model: Explains how women's earnings may be lower due to childcare and caregiving responsibilities.

Explore key sociological concepts in the first chapter. Learn about the foundational figures like Comte, Durkheim, Marx, and Weber and their impacts on sociology. This quiz covers important terms like positivism, anomie, and sociological imagination.