Sociology Chapter 1: Perspectives

Chapter 1: Sociological Perspectives

• Sociology defined: The scientific study of society and human behavior.
• Auguste Comte's impact: Considered the "father of sociology," Comte established sociology as a scientific discipline, laying foundational ideas for the study of society.
• Positivism: Coined by Comte, positivism relies on scientific evidence (experiments/statistics) to explain societal operation.
• Sociological Imagination (C. Wright Mills): A framework for interpreting social issues beyond individual limitations.
• Anomie: Breakdown of social norms, values, and expectations within a society.
• Emile Durkheim's Impact: Helped to define and establish sociology as a field of study.
• Karl Marx's Focus: Believed history is driven by class conflict, with the upper class controlling the means of production and profits, while workers seek to overthrow them.
• Max Weber's Focus: Examined the aspects of non-rational and rational behavior in society.
• Symbolic Interactionism (Cooley & Mead): Emphasizes symbols and interactions in shaping our perception of the world.
• Industrialization: Transformation from agricultural societies to manufacturing-based economies.
• Sociobiology: Study of the biological basis of social behavior in organisms.
• Comte, Martineau, Spencer, Durkheim, DuBois, Marx, Weber, Addams, Merton, Mills (contributions): Detailed below.

Sociologists & Contributions

• Auguste Comte: Developed the Law of Three Stages: Theological, Metaphysical, and Positive.
• Harriet Martineau: Advocated for social reform and improvement for all, pioneering a feminist perspective. Translator of works of many figures in social sciences.
• Herbert Spencer: Proposed Social Darwinism, emphasizing survival of the fittest in societal development (a controversial and antiquated idea in modern contexts).
• Émile Durkheim: Analyzed modern and pre-modern societies, highlighting the importance of social solidarity and religion in pre-modern societies.
• W.E.B. Du Bois: Introduced the concepts of double consciousness and race conflict, highlighting the challenges faced by African Americans.
• Karl Marx: Emphasized class conflict as the driving force in history and the struggle for control over the means of production.
• Max Weber: Differentiated between non-rational and rational behavior and analyzed varying sources of social power.
• Jane Addams: Applied social science principles and social work, co-founding the Hull House to improve immigrant communities' lives.
• Robert Merton: Developed Strain Theory, focusing on how access to socially accepted goals influences conformity and deviance.
• C. Wright Mills: Introduced the concept of the power elite, highlighting a small group's influence over society.

Chapter 2: Culture

• Ethnocentrism: Judging other cultures by the standards of one's own.
• Cultural Universals: Common elements across all cultures (e.g., language).
• Material and Non-Material Culture: Material culture refers to physical objects, while non-material culture encompasses beliefs, values, and norms.
• High vs. Low Culture: High culture is associated with elites, while low culture represents popular culture.
• Culture Components: Symbols, language, norms.
• Language and Perception of Race/Ethnicity: Language transmits ideas about racial/ethnic superiority.
• Cultural Relativism: Understanding a culture on its own terms.
• Values, Mores, Folkways: Values are broad standards for good/bad; folkways are informal rules; mores are formal rules.
• Subcultures & Countercultures: Subcultures are groups within a larger culture; countercultures reject dominant cultural norms.
• Functionalist, Conflict, Symbolic Interactionist, Postmodern Views on Culture: Detailed below.

Chapter 3: Socialization

• Socialization: The process of learning culture and societal functioning.
• Harry Harlow and Contact Comfort: Researched the importance of caregiving and attachment.
• Anna and Isabelle Cases: Examples of the significant impact of early socialization and the importance of interaction on development.
• Sociological Theories of Human Development (Symbolic Interactionist):
• Cooley's Self-Concept: Image of self based on others' perceptions.
• Mead's Looking-Glass Self: Process of self-evaluation based on imagined perceptions of others.
• Role Taking and Stages of Self-Development: Imitation, play, game stages, and "I" & "me" concepts.
• Generalized Other: Awareness of societal expectations.
• Functionalist Perspective (primary, secondary, tertiary): Primary socialization occurs in the family, secondary in other settings, and tertiary is new contexts in adulthood.
• Conflict Perspective on Socialization: Socialization is a tool for maintaining power, perpetuating inequality, and controlling populations.
• Agents of Socialization: Family, school, peers, mass media, gender socialization, racial socialization (examples provided).
• Anticipatory Socialization: Preparing for future roles.
• Resocialization and Total Institutions: Total institutions (e.g., prison) strip and rebuild identities.
• Piaget and Stages of Cognitive Development: Four stages described, focusing on cognitive development progression.

Chapter 4: Social Structure

• Status: Socially defined position with expectations, rights, and duties.
• Master Status: Crucial for social identity and profoundly impacts an individual's life.
• Ascribed vs. Achieved Status: Ascribed statuses are assigned (e.g., sex, race); achieved are earned (e.g., profession).
• Status Symbol: Material signs signifying social status.
• Primary vs. Secondary Groups: Primary groups are intimate; secondary groups are larger and based on shared goals.
• Formal vs. Secondary Group: Formal groups are structured, while secondary groups are based on shared interests.
• Functionalist View on Social Institutions: Explains how institutions fulfill essential societal tasks, maintaining order, function of the systems.
• Manifest and Latent Functions: Manifest functions are intended consequences and latent are unintended.
• Durkheim and Anomie: Durkheim linked anomie to the breakdown of social order, primarily influenced by industrialization.
• Role Conflict, Role Strain, and Role-Playing: Examples provided.
• Importance of Peer Groups to Adolescents: Key to understanding the world and developing social skills.
• Bourgeoisie and Proletariat (Marx): Different social classes in capitalist society.

Chapter 5: Groups and Organizations

• Functionalist, Conflict, and Symbolic Interactionist Views of Social Structures and Society: Detailed above.
• Primary vs. Secondary Groups: Primary groups are long-term, intimate; secondary groups are larger and based on shared goals.
• Reference Group: A group influencing behavior and attitudes.
• In-Groups & Out-Groups: In-groups are those a person belongs to; out-groups are those they do not belong to.
• Group Conformity and Groupthink: Explained and defined.

Chapter 6: Deviance

• Deviance Defined: Behavior, beliefs, or conditions violating social norms.
• Defining Deviance: Society defines deviance through norms and social reaction.
• Functionalist View of Deviance: Deviance clarifies rules, unites groups, and promotes social change.
• Conflict Perspective Theory on Deviance: Deviance is linked to power, inequality, and the use of law to protect the interests of the wealthy.
• Examples of Informal & Formal Sanctions: Positive and negative sanctions are given for conformity or violations of norms.
• Deviance Theories (Strain, Control, Differential Association, Labeling): Explained.
• White-Collar Crime: Non-violent crimes committed by people in positions of power.

Chapter 10: Sex, Gender, & Sexuality

• Sex vs. Gender: Sex refers to biological characteristics; gender encompasses societal roles, norms, and relationships.
• Intersex, Transgender, Gender Role, Gender Identity: Defined.
• Sexism: Subordination of one sex based on assumed superiority of the other.
• Intersectionality: Intertwined social/political identities lead to unique discrimination or privileges.
• Gender Socialization: Learn gender roles from parents, peers, media.
• Functionalist, Conflict, and Feminist Perspectives on Gender Stratification: Differences provided, functionalist view it as complementary parts, conflict views power struggles while feminist views gender as a constructed system that results in inequality.
• Human Capital Model: Explains how women's earnings may be lower due to childcare and caregiving responsibilities.