Sociological Research Methods

How Sociologists Gain Knowledge

• Sociologists aim to expand understanding of the social world.
• Research methods provide a systematic way to investigate and create a defensible version of reality.

The Scientific Nature of Sociology

• Sociology is a science that systematically collects and categorizes facts or truths.
• Logic and observation are the twin pillars
• Scientific research operates on both theoretical and empirical levels.
• Scientific claims need to be logical and supported by empirical observation.
• Scientists intentionally gather organized information, following predetermined steps.

The Importance of the Scientific Method

• The scientific method makes empirical evidence gathering systematic.
• Established parameters ensure findings are objective and accurate.
• Boundaries are provided to focus a study and organize results.
• Sociologists gain a shared basis for discussion and analysis.
• Sociologists avoid attachment to specific results, maintaining independence from personal beliefs.

Sociology and Research

• Sociological research seeks to identify patterns in social life.
• Data collection methods detect social regularities.
• Data analysis techniques interpret data, employing theory for explanation.

Key Steps in Research

• Specify the research question.
• Review existing scientific literature for cumulative meaning.
• Formulate a theory or state hypotheses, comprised of interrelated ideas explaining empirical realities.
• Select a research design.
• Replication is vital
• Collect data from cases, samples, and populations.
• Analyze the data
• Draw inferences and conclusions in generalization.
• Disseminate results through peer review and public sociology.

Quantitative Methods

• Quantitative methods condense data into numbers that can be aggregated, compared, and summarized.
• They focus on breadth, examining a larger number of cases.
• Survey research is a common quantitative method

Qualitative Methods

• Qualitative methods collect data that yield words or text, such as in-depth interviews.
• They focus on depth, understanding a smaller set of cases.
• Qualitative data offers greater richness in meaning compared to quantitative data.

Combining Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches

• Qualitative and quantitative methods are not opposing perspectives
• Researchers may pick an approach depending on suitability to research question or training.
• Methodological approaches compliment by different goals, strengths and weaknesses.

Types of Research

• Basic research is driven by curiosity about a topic to expand knowledge or solve an intellectual puzzle.
• Applied sociology is conducted with a specific purpose beyond researcher interest.
• Applied sociology seeks solutions to problems, improve living, or evaluate social policies or programs.

Variables

• A variable is a characteristic or measure of a social phenomenon that varies in value.
• Independent variables cause changes in dependent variables.
• Dependent variables are affected by independent variables.

Relationships Between Variables

• Relational statements connect two or more variables.
• Value of one variable gives information on other variables.
• Probabilistic relationships involve two variables that regularly occur together to some degree.
• As one variable increases, another tends to increase or decrease.

Establishing Causation

• Three conditions are required to suggest causation:
• A relationship or correlation must exist between independent and dependent variables.
• The independent variable must precede the dependent variable.
• No other variable can be responsible for the causal relationship; no alternative explanation

Observation

• Knowing social world through observation.
• Selective observation involves only noticing patterns that confirm existing views.
• Confirmation bias support existing views
• Overgeneralization involves assuming broad social patterns based on limited observations.
• Vibes contribute to limited observation

Research Aims

• Sociology research seeks patterns in social life, such as education and distress.
• Data collection methods identify these regularities using sampling surveys.
• Data analysis techniques interpret data using theory to explain data.

Types of Social Research

• Exploratory: Examines new areas to scope a problem, generate ideas, & test feasibility before larger study
• Descriptive: Makes mindful observations/generates detailed documentation e.g. unemployment rate
• Explanatory: Explains observed behaviors/phenomena by answering "why" and "how" questions

Research Approaches

• Inductive: Use observations/empirical evidence to create general propositions.
• Deductive: Start with a social theory and test its implications with data.

Research Methods and Hypotheses

• A hypothesis is an assumption about the relationship between two or more variables.
• It's an educated guess based on theory, observations, or previous discoveries, expressed as a testable proposition.
• Researchers describe hypotheses as "supported" or "not supported."
• Researchers avoid declaring findings definitively

Population Surveys

• Surveys gather participant data by series of questions pertaining to attitudes, belief, etc.
• Surveys target a specific population.
• Researchers survey a sample that represents a population.
• Representativeness is key
• Generalizability depends on sample-based findings applied to a broader population.

Analysis Units

• Sampling bias can occur if selected elements don't represent the larger population, and they should be representative.
• Research focuses on a unit of analysis like a person, collective, or object for a larger population.
• Because every unit likely cannot be included in a study, so a suitable sample can be taken.

Operational Definitions

• Sociologists develop empirical definitions, objectively measuring a concept's dimensions.
• Measurement tools bridge conceptual/empirical levels.
• Responses infer a concept's presence.
• Social phenomena are rendered quantifiable with variables.
• Predictions are presented using statistical language, showing relationships in graphs/tables
• Measurement quality is reviewable during peer review.

Correlations

• Researchers want to know if a correlation exists, indicating an association between study variables

Suggesting Causation

• Three conditions are needed to suggest causation:
  • Correlations exist between independent and dependent variables
  • The independent variable should be prior to the dependent variable
  • No other variable exists to produce the causal relationship

Scientific Rigor

• "Systematic" defines sociology as scientific because it used the scientific method
• It establishes objective and accurate parameters.
• Established boundries of a focus and study and its results
• Sociologists share discussion and analysis basis.

Sampling Essentials

• Sampling selects research analysis cases
• A sampling frame lists population members available to researchers for sample selection.
• Generalizability arises from sample's ability to share something relevant about source data as "representative sample".
• Nonrespondents are people who dont answer/not reachable.

Key terms of descriptive study

• Descriptive stats such as medians and means are used to gauge study's sample and their parameters.
• To describe general characteristics, populations need parameters like standard deviations and numerical values.
• If not enough data exists, researchers create population statistics from sample stats.

Sampling and probability

• Non-probability sampling lacks known likelihood of someone chosen being among samples.
• Randomized probability allows researchers to know person within group being selected

Operationalization and statistics

• Operational definitions is how it gets objectively mesured
• Data from that provides bridge by measurements.
• From survey answerss you can determine concept from empricial data based on values

Systematic bias and sampling approaches

• Common approaches use probability to indicate members from frame to equal select chance

Sampling Errors and Designs

• Systematic sampling is chosen systematically, choosing k/th variable in list. E.g every 3
• Strata sample divides the group to two for excludability in samples for identified samples. This applies to small groups.
• Proportional stratified sample is sample carved in sampling frome and stratum

Weights & Potential biasses

• Dispoportionate stratified involves sized subgroup samples. In oversampling subgroup provides more share sample for statistics.
• Weighting adjusts cases to contribute
• Common biasses are nonrespsonse if respondents differ, which differs relevant characteristics. Self slection is types of people volunteer, e.g. opinions.

What Is Loneliness?

• Loneliness is subjective state or feeling of isolation. Conceptualized by desired and current social satisfaction.

Research examples & Hypothesis

• Example research is levels of increase or decrease.
• Operationalizing subjective states like loneliness occurs through past experiences.

Statistics & Causation

• Statistics for variable coordination between others. There is correlation.
• You need satifisaction for three criteria including all conditions and not having other reasons to be that way

Measurement and error

• It requires interpretation and translation to a degree and measured indicator. Which is called operationalization.
• To make sure it's done well, it needs to have validity, to work if the measure is true for frequent stress relating to biomerkers. It also needs to work over other time
• How to know you went wrong is to identify error

Random and Systematic Error

• Systematic error exists but is correctable. Random error (unpredictable variation) occurs when true data isn't known.
• Systemic errors (bias) are more social desirability bias and acquiescience.