Developmental Psychology revision (all notes)

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Questions and Answers

What is the 'halo effect' as it relates to attractiveness?

The tendency for people to make positive judgments about someone based on a single positive attribute, such as attractiveness. (correct)

The tendency for people to be more influenced by first impressions than subsequent interactions.

The tendency for people to be more attracted to individuals with similar interests and values.

The tendency for people to be more attracted to individuals with similar physical characteristics.

According to the 'Matching Hypothesis', what is a key factor in attraction?

Shared cultural background and upbringing.

Shared interests and values.

Similar levels of attractiveness. (correct)

Physical proximity and frequent interactions.

What is the primary difference between 'Social Exchange Theory' and the 'Matching Hypothesis' regarding attraction?

The emphasis on similarity vs. physical attractiveness. (correct)

The focus on long-term vs. short-term relationships.

The importance of self-disclosure vs. shared interests.

The role of cultural influences vs. biological factors.

Which of the following is NOT a common outcome associated with physical attractiveness?

Increased risk of depression. (C) Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following represents a significant shift in attraction research occurring post-1980?

Development of evolutionary psychology theories. (B) Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements supports the idea that beauty is subjective rather than objective?

Different cultures have diverse ways of enhancing beauty. (D) Signup and view all the answers

What conclusion can be drawn from the research on body mass index (BMI) and attractiveness in different cultural contexts?

Cultural norms and exposure can significantly shape body weight preferences. (A) Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary argument behind the 'cognitive approach' to attraction?

Attractiveness is based on the perception of facial averageness and its link to health. (A) Signup and view all the answers

How does 'inter-sexual selection' explain the role of attractiveness in evolution?

Individuals with desirable traits are more likely to be chosen as mates, increasing the frequency of those genes in the next generation. (C) Signup and view all the answers

Which human mating pattern, as described in the text, suggests a degree of polyandry?

Serially monogamous. (B) Signup and view all the answers

What does social psychology primarily focus on?

The interpersonal behavior and social influences on individual cognition (B) Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following methods is NOT typically used in social psychology?

Neurological imaging (C) Signup and view all the answers

What is a significant aim of evolutionary social psychology?

To investigate social behaviors as they relate to historical survival (C) Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes the concept of social aetiology of cognition?

The understanding of mental processes as influenced by social contexts and interactions (D) Signup and view all the answers

Why is social psychology considered important in understanding human behavior?

It considers how social interactions affect individual behaviors and societal outcomes (D) Signup and view all the answers

What significantly contributes to the higher homicide rates in southern US states?

A culture of honor that legitimizes violent responses to insults (B) Signup and view all the answers

In Cohen et al.'s experiment, what was a significant response observed in Southerners when insulted?

Heightened cortisol and testosterone responses (A) Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements aligns with Felson’s symbolic interactionist framework?

Slight interpretations can lead to perceived intentional attacks. (C) Signup and view all the answers

What finding did Blau and Blau (1982) reveal about homicide rates in relation to the Southern US population?

Homicide rates are positively correlated with the proportion of white population from the South. (B) Signup and view all the answers

How does the weaker criminal justice system in the Southern US influence family dynamics related to violence?

Alliances between families form to uphold honor and prevent conflict. (B) Signup and view all the answers

What does Dunbar's number suggest about human social relationships?

The average size of a stable social group is about 150. (B) Signup and view all the answers

Based on the studies mentioned, how does social life affect health?

Increased social contact is linked to lower mortality rates. (A) Signup and view all the answers

What was a finding from Berkman & Breslow's 20-year longitudinal study?

Those with fewer relationships have a higher mortality rate. (B) Signup and view all the answers

What impact does friendship have on mental health according to the findings presented?

Friendship can lower pain responses and reduce stress. (D) Signup and view all the answers

In the Robbers Cave study by Sherif et al., what was essential to reduce competition and hostility?

Establishing superordinate goals requiring cooperation. (D) Signup and view all the answers

Which aspect is highlighted as a benefit of social support?

Providing social support may protect against major depression. (B) Signup and view all the answers

What conclusion can be drawn from the anatomy of loneliness findings?

People who feel lonely report poorer health. (B) Signup and view all the answers

What does the minimal group paradigm suggest about human relationships?

Group membership can significantly influence self-worth. (C) Signup and view all the answers

What percentage of non-binary respondents is indicated in the provided content?

76% (B) Signup and view all the answers

Which condition is NOT associated with atypical sex chromosome arrangements?

Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia (B) Signup and view all the answers

Cohen’s d scores can indicate the size of the effect in behavioral studies. What does a positive value represent?

Men are higher (B) Signup and view all the answers

What is meant by gender identity not being dichotomous?

Gender identity exists on a spectrum. (D) Signup and view all the answers

How is a small effect size measured with Cohen's d?

0.2 (D) Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes gender roles?

Behaviors deemed suitable for males or females. (C) Signup and view all the answers

What does a Cohen's d value of -0.52 indicate about sex role attitudes?

Females typically have more liberal attitudes than males. (D) Signup and view all the answers

What characteristic is shared between the conditions Turner’s syndrome and Klinefelter’s syndrome?

Both relate to atypical sex chromosome configurations. (A) Signup and view all the answers

Psychometric tests must be reliable and valid. What happens if a test fails to correlate with behavioral criteria?

It cannot be relied upon for consistent results. (B) Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements about gender identity is correct?

It reflects an individual’s perception of their gender. (D) Signup and view all the answers

What does the Bem Sex Role Inventory (BSRI) suggest about masculinity and femininity?

They can exist simultaneously as separate dimensions. (C) Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best defines the concept of 'Social Role Theory' as proposed by Eagly?

Social behaviors are learned and reinforced through societal norms. (A) Signup and view all the answers

What does the term 'Biosocial reformulation' imply about gender roles?

They arise from the interplay of biology and social influences. (B) Signup and view all the answers

Which researcher conducted significant work on the topics of stereotype threat in relation to mathematics?

Spencer (C) Signup and view all the answers

How do men and women typically score on the BSRI masculinity and femininity scales?

Women score higher on femininity while men score higher on masculinity. (A) Signup and view all the answers

What explanation is provided for the modest sex differences observed in adult social behavior in Western cultures?

They are largely shaped by cultural and social norms. (A) Signup and view all the answers

What concept highlights the idea that both sex and gender exist on continua?

Mosaic Theory (C) Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following theories emphasizes the learned nature of gender roles?

Gender Schema Theory (B) Signup and view all the answers

What has research shown regarding the consistency of stereotypes over the last fifty years?

Stereotypes have remained relatively stable. (D) Signup and view all the answers

What is one common misconception regarding children's behavior and stereotypes?

Children exhibit sex differences in behavior before developing stereotypes. (D) Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary focus of evolutionary approaches to aggression?

Aggression as an outcome of cost/benefit balance (D) Signup and view all the answers

In what context is male aggression notably increased according to the content?

In late teens and 20s across cultures (A) Signup and view all the answers

Which statement accurately reflects the findings related to male competition?

High rank among males provides access to more mates (D) Signup and view all the answers

What factor significantly influences women's aggression according to Campbell (1999)?

Fear of physical harm to themselves and their offspring (D) Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes the aggressive behavior seen in men compared to women?

Men view their aggression as instrumental, while women view theirs as expressive (B) Signup and view all the answers

According to evolutionary theories, what is one key reason for the prevalence of male-male violence?

Competition for resources and mating opportunities (D) Signup and view all the answers

What effect does social status have on men's aggressive behavior, particularly in low socioeconomic groups?

Men are more focused on status and honor, increasing aggression in low SES contexts (A) Signup and view all the answers

What is one reason men may engage in aggressive behavior in response to perceived threats to their social standing?

To reclaim lost honor or face (A) Signup and view all the answers

According to Nisbett (1993), how is backing down from a confrontation perceived?

As a cowardly act that diminishes masculinity (B) Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following factors did Wolfgang & Ferracuti (1967) highlight as contributing to high rates of violence in certain subcultures?

Cultural acceptance of violence (A) Signup and view all the answers

What factor primarily limits reproductive opportunities in females?

Costly reproductive investment (A) Signup and view all the answers

In the context of mate selection, what trait do males prioritize for long-term relationships?

Youth (B) Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes anisogamy?

Differences in gamete size and parental investment (D) Signup and view all the answers

Which feature is considered a 'fertility cue' according to research?

Waist-hip ratio (A) Signup and view all the answers

What does the handicap principle suggest in terms of mate selection?

Displaying costly traits signals superior genetics. (C) Signup and view all the answers

What do the terms 'averageness' and 'symmetry' indicate in the context of attractiveness?

Good health and genetic quality (C) Signup and view all the answers

According to Gangestad & Thornhill, what does body fluctuating asymmetry indicate?

Genetic fitness (D) Signup and view all the answers

What impact do parental characteristics have on mate preferences according to sexual imprinting?

They shape preferences towards similar traits. (A) Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary focus of Buss and Schmitt's Sexual Strategies Theory?

Differences in mate selection among genders (D) Signup and view all the answers

What factor has been shown to increase the attractiveness of ornaments such as tattoos?

High pathogen environments (B) Signup and view all the answers

What is a key reason women may avoid expressing their gender identity?

Fear of negative reactions (B) Signup and view all the answers

What factor does symmetry predict according to Jones et al (2001)?

Apparent health (A) Signup and view all the answers

Why might women make fewer requests in dating as they age?

Less likelihood of mentioning their age (B) Signup and view all the answers

What characterizes qualitative research in social psychology?

Use of interviews and observations as data sources (A) Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a critique of the Standard Social Science Model?

It underestimates the role of genetics in behavior. (B) Signup and view all the answers

What process is suggested by the term 'fixation' in evolutionary psychology?

Prevalent traits that become dominant in a population (B) Signup and view all the answers

What is a significant finding from the BBC's Loneliness Experiment regarding young people?

They have the highest rates of reported loneliness. (A) Signup and view all the answers

Which methodological approach is most commonly criticized for its limited ecological validity?

Experimental research (B) Signup and view all the answers

According to Brehm et al. (2002), what enhances the likelihood of a specific social behavior being passed on to future generations?

Reproductive success (A) Signup and view all the answers

Which approach emphasizes the influence of a person's environment on their behavior?

Social learning theory (D) Signup and view all the answers

What is one common misconception about loneliness as indicated in the content?

Being alone is the same as feeling lonely. (B) Signup and view all the answers

What does the term 'WEIRD' in social psychology research refer to?

Western, Educated, Industrial, Rich, Democratic samples (A) Signup and view all the answers

In the context of evolutionary psychology, what is 'systematic selection'?

Selection driven by the environment's pressures (B) Signup and view all the answers

What is suggested as the most effective solution for addressing loneliness?

Participating in hobbies and dedicating time to work (B) Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following research methods assesses the relationship between two variables without manipulating them?

Correlational research (B) Signup and view all the answers

Which aspect of friendship and social connection is associated with better emotional wellbeing?

Close and supportive relationships (D) Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary distinction between intimacy and romantic passion according to Sternberg's Triarchic model of love?

Intimacy represents feelings of closeness, while passion is a desire for intimacy. (B) Signup and view all the answers

What component of the Passionate Love Scale does not support aromanticism?

Cognitive (C) Signup and view all the answers

According to the studies on friendship, which factor is emphasized as important for forming friendships?

Proximity (B) Signup and view all the answers

What psychological principle explains why individuals tend to like others who share their negative opinions?

Interpersonal chemistry (B) Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements aligns with the findings of Festinger's social comparison theory?

Validation of one's beliefs comes from similar others. (C) Signup and view all the answers

Which neurotransmitter is associated with romantic love according to Fisher's theory?

Dopamine (B) Signup and view all the answers

What does the term 'misattribution of arousal' refer to in the context of Dutton & Aron's study?

A heightened sense of attraction due to situational factors. (B) Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of oxytocin according to Fisher's model of relationship behavior?

Facilitates long-term bonding. (B) Signup and view all the answers

Which component of love reflects the decision to maintain a relationship over time?

Commitment (B) Signup and view all the answers

In romantic relationships, which factor is added to the principles of proximity and similarity?

Physical attraction (B) Signup and view all the answers

What does the exposure effect suggest about the formation of friendships?

Increasing familiarity improves liking. (C) Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following did Collins & Miller's meta-analysis find regarding reciprocity and emotional feedback?

Positive feedback leads to stronger connections. (C) Signup and view all the answers

What is one reason that similarity in romantic attraction is considered important?

It provides validation of feelings. (B) Signup and view all the answers

Which theory suggests that individuals prefer friends who reciprocate their feelings?

Reciprocity theory (A) Signup and view all the answers

How does testosterone influence aggressive behavior?

It increases aggression mainly in high-risk men. (C) Signup and view all the answers

What is the heritability range for aggression?

40-50% (B) Signup and view all the answers

What phenomenon describes the tendency of bystanders to look to others for cues in emergencies?

Pluralistic ignorance (C) Signup and view all the answers

Which factor is particularly influential in determining whether individuals will intervene in a crisis?

Number of bystanders present (B) Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a biological factor associated with aggression?

Higher levels of testosterone (B) Signup and view all the answers

What tends to happen to testosterone levels during competitive situations?

They rise in anticipation of competition. (D) Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following situations would likely reduce the bystander effect?

The presence of friends rather than strangers. (C), Multiple people who are physically capable of helping. (D) Signup and view all the answers

In terms of aggression and impulsivity, which group shows the highest levels of impulsivity?

Delinquents show poor self-control. (D) Signup and view all the answers

What is one way that aggression is linked to social behaviors?

Aggression can increase status and fitness, especially in males. (C) Signup and view all the answers

How does cultural context impact aggression in girls?

Cultural norms can encourage girls to take more risks initially. (A) Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following was NOT identified as a moderating factor of the bystander effect?

Age of the victim (C) Signup and view all the answers

What should ideally happen to aggression in situations with clear danger?

It might increase as individuals perceive higher threat. (B) Signup and view all the answers

Which study demonstrated that responsibility is not diffused when co-witnesses are clearly unable to help?

Bickman (1971) (B) Signup and view all the answers

In rat studies, what effect does administering testosterone have?

It leads to elevated aggression behaviors. (D) Signup and view all the answers

What trend is observed regarding sex differences in impulsivity as societies become more egalitarian?

They are decreasing. (D) Signup and view all the answers

In egalitarian societies, which personality traits tend to exhibit larger sex differences?

Benevolence and power values. (C) Signup and view all the answers

Which theory emphasizes the role of reward and punishment in gender behavior development?

Learning Theory. (A) Signup and view all the answers

What did the meta-analysis by Lytton and Romney (1991) conclude about parental influence on gender-specific behavior?

Only sex-typed toys and chores showed parental influence. (B) Signup and view all the answers

Which learning model did Bandura emphasize for understanding gender behavior?

Modelling. (D) Signup and view all the answers

What is suggested by Perry and Bussey regarding gender typing in relation to the number of models children observe?

Children must watch multiple models to develop gender typing. (B) Signup and view all the answers

Gender schema theory suggests that children's understanding of gender is developed through their:

Schema or mental blueprints. (B) Signup and view all the answers

Which effect of testosterone is primarily linked to behavior in females during prenatal development?

Organizing effects. (C) Signup and view all the answers

What is one consequence of congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH) in females?

Greater exposure to testosterone leading to diverse interests. (A) Signup and view all the answers

What impact does watching rap videos have on children's perceptions of gender?

They are associated with negative views of women. (B) Signup and view all the answers

According to evolutionary theory, which sex is typically choosy when it comes to mating?

Females with higher parental investment. (D) Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of the Y chromosome in sexual differentiation?

It carries the SRY gene that facilitates testes formation. (A) Signup and view all the answers

How does evolutionary theory explain men's greater competitiveness?

Men compete for mating access and resources. (D) Signup and view all the answers

Which gene is primarily responsible for the organisation of testes in male embryos?

SRY gene. (B) Signup and view all the answers

What characteristic behavior is associated with female parental investment according to evolutionary theory?

Lower competitiveness and risk-taking. (D) Signup and view all the answers

What primarily determines an individual's satisfaction in a relationship according to comparison level (CL)?

The expectations and feelings of deserving (C) Signup and view all the answers

How is dependence in a relationship defined?

The degree of emotional attachment to a partner (D) Signup and view all the answers

What does the simple standard in social exchange theory focus on?

Evaluating if a relationship is profitable (A) Signup and view all the answers

Which statement accurately reflects the concept of equity in relationships?

Partners should receive rewards proportional to their contributions (C) Signup and view all the answers

According to equity theory, what is likely to happen when one partner feels they are receiving less than they are contributing?

They will experience distress and seek to restore balance (A) Signup and view all the answers

How does a low comparison level for alternatives (CLalt) affect commitment to a relationship?

It strengthens the psychological link to the current relationship (D) Signup and view all the answers

What aspect do people assess when evaluating their outcomes in relationships according to social exchange theory?

Rewards and costs of the relationship (A) Signup and view all the answers

Which proposition of equity theory states that partners care about fairness?

Partners are concerned with fairness (B) Signup and view all the answers

According to social exchange theory, what leads to individuals keeping track of rewards and costs?

Rational decision making (B) Signup and view all the answers

What does the equity concept specifically relate to in terms of relationship dynamics?

The fairness of rewards distributed relative to contributions (A) Signup and view all the answers

What factor is the primary predictor of dating success identified in classic social psychology approaches to attraction?

Physical attractiveness (B) Signup and view all the answers

In the context of Clark & Mills’ findings, how can close relationships be distinguished from casual ones?

Close relationships are based on communal concerns rather than expectations of rewards (A) Signup and view all the answers

In social exchange theory, what can lead individuals to potentially leave their current relationship?

High comparison level for alternatives (CLalt) (D) Signup and view all the answers

What is a common misconception about the application of equity theory in all types of relationships?

Equity theory applies equally to all cultures (D) Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

Bystander inaction is influenced by ambiguity and pluralistic ignorance. Witnesses look to others for cues, leading to inaction, as seen in the Kitty Genovese case and Latane & Darley's research (smoke-filled room).
Diffusion of responsibility: Individuals feel less personally responsible for helping when others are present. If many people are present, the perceived responsibility for intervening is divided amongst them.
Bystander effect is reduced when the danger is clear. In cases of clear danger or when a perpetrator is present, the need for cooperation is recognized, which increases help-seeking behavior.
Bystander effect is higher amongst large groups of people and a slower response to emergencies.

Evolutionary Perspective of Helping

Helping is often costly, but helping kin and reciprocally can benefit fitness. This altruistic behavior, rather than benefiting the individual, helps perpetuate genes.
Kin selection (Hamilton, 1963): Helping relatives increases the likelihood of genes being passed on, even if it doesn't benefit the individual directly. This is measured by the coefficient of relatedness.
Reciprocal altruism: Helping others may be beneficial if they're likely to help in return in the future. This long-term strategy benefits both individuals involved.

Studying That Suits You

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Description

Explore the factors influencing helping behavior and bystander inaction through various social models. This quiz delves into concepts such as diffusion of responsibility, the bystander effect, and the evolutionary perspective on altruism. Test your understanding of how social dynamics affect emergency responses and the role of kin selection in helping behavior.