Social and Sexual Motivation

Social Motives

• Social motives stem from interactions and relationships, influencing behaviors like achievement, affiliation, and power.
• Social motives differ among individuals based on experiences and culture.
• Need for Achievement: The desire to excel and meet high standards.
• Need for Affiliation: The desire to form and maintain social bonds.
• Need for Power: The desire to influence or control others.

Evolutionary Model of Sexual Behavior

• Evolutionary principles influence human mating strategies and preferences, enhancing reproductive success.
• Parental investment theory suggests the sex investing more in offspring is more selective in mate choice.
• Men often prioritize youth and attractiveness in partners.
• Women may emphasize a partner's resources and social status.
• Men incline toward short-term mating for increased reproductive opportunities.
• Women might prefer long-term partnerships for support and protection.
• Human sexual behavior is complex, influenced by biological, psychological, and social factors.

Physiological Component of Emotion

• This involves bodily arousal accompanying emotional experiences.
• The autonomic nervous system regulates changes in heart rate, blood pressure, respiration, and hormones.
• The sympathetic division mobilizes the body's resources for "fight-or-flight" responses.
• The parasympathetic division helps the body return to a calm state after arousal.
• Different emotions can produce similar physiological arousal patterns.
• Cannon-Bard theory: Physiological arousal may occur without the experience of emotions.
• James-Lange theory: Emotional experience results from perception of autonomic arousal.

Primary Emotions

• Primary emotions are fundamental, universally recognized responses that serve as building blocks for complex experiences.
• Weiten identifies six primary emotions.
• Happiness: A state of well-being and contentment.
• Sadness: Feelings of sorrow or unhappiness.
• Anger: A strong feeling of displeasure or hostility.
• Fear: An unpleasant emotion caused by the perception of danger.
• Surprise: A sudden feeling of astonishment or amazement.
• Disgust: A strong aversion or repulsion toward something offensive.

Predictors of Happiness

• Subjective well-being is influenced by internal and external factors.
• Personality Traits: High self-esteem, optimism, and extraversion correlate with increased well-being.
• Social Relationships: Strong support from friends, family, and romantic relationships contributes to life satisfaction.
• Work and Career Satisfaction: Meaningful work and recognition enhance overall well-being.
• Health: Physical health and absence of chronic illnesses are important for happiness.
• Economic Factors: Financial stability is associated with higher subjective well-being.

Prenatal Development

• Divided into three phases.
• Germinal stage: The first two weeks of pregnancy, beginning with zygote creation through fertilization.
• Zygote implants itself in the uterine wall on the seventh day
• Embryonic stage: From two weeks to two months of pregnancy, vital organs and bodily systems form.
• Fetal stage: From two months to birth, rapid bodily growth occurs consisting of muscles and bones.
• Respiratory and digestive systems mature

Cognitive Development

• Refers to changes in thinking, reasoning, remembering, and problem-solving.
• Jean Piaget's Theory
• Piaget proposed four stages of cognitive development.
• Sensorimotor Stage (Birth to 2 years): Infants experience the world and their senses.
• Preoperational Stage (2 to 7 years): Children use language and think symbolically; thinking is intuitive and egocentric.
• Concrete Operational Stage (7 to 11 years): Children develop logical thinking and understand conservation.
• Formal Operational Stage (11 years onward): Individuals develop abstract reasoning and hypothetical thinking.
• Vygotsky's Sociocultural Theory
• Lev Vygotsky emphasized the role of social interaction and cultural tools.
• Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) represents tasks a child can perform with help.
• Information Processing Approach
• Compares the mind to a computer; focuses on encoding, storing, and retrieving information.
• Examines changes in attention, memory, and problem-solving abilities
• Some cognitive abilities, like vocabulary, remain stable or improve with age while others, such as processing speed and working memory, may decline.

Moral Development

• This refers to the changes in understanding justice, morality, and related behaviors.
• Lawrence Kohlberg's Theory
• Kohlberg proposed stages of moral reasoning.
• Preconventional Level: Morality is externally controlled; individuals obey rules for rewards or to avoid punishment.
• Conventional Level: Morality is based on societal norms.
• Postconventional Level: Morality is guided by internal principles that may conflict with societal rules.
• Moral Reasoning vs. Moral Behavior
• Moral reasoning refers to thought processes behind decisions, while moral behavior is the actions taken.
• Emotions like guilt, shame, and empathy play roles in moral development, influencing responses to moral dilemmas.

Attachment

• Attachment is the affection between infants and caregivers.
• First important attachment is commonly with the mother.
• By 6 to 8 months, children show preference for the mother and experience separation anxiety.
• Theories of attachment include that it is associated with classical conditioning.
• Harry Harlow’s study with monkeys showed that monkeys ran to the cloth mother in fear due to the natural comfort of that artificial mother.
• John Bowlby believed adults are programmed to be captivated by separation anxiety and respond with protection.
• Patterns of attachment
• Anxious-ambivalent attachment: Child engages in visual checking and clings to the mother
• Secure attachment: Child is playful and sociable
• Avoidant attachment: Child avoids close contact

Adolescent Identity Development

• Erik Erikson's Psychosocial Development Theory
• Adolescence is characterized by the identity against role confusion stage.
• Successful resolution leads to fidelity and commitment to values.
• James Marcia's Identity Statuses
• Identity Diffusion: Lack of exploration and commitment.
• Identity Foreclosure: Commitment without exploration; accepting roles from others.
• Identity Moratorium: Active exploration without commitment.
• Identity Achievement: Commitment following exploration.
• Family Dynamics
• Supportive families provide a secure base for exploration, while conflict can hinder it.

Old Age/Alzheimer's

• As individuals age, they may experience declines in memory and processing speed.
• Alzheimer's Disease: Memory impairment and cognitive decline and behavioral changes.
• Dementia is an umbrella term for cognitive impairments, with Alzheimer's being the most common cause.
• Engaging in regular physical and mental activity can reduce the risk of cognitive decline.

Freud's Theory of Personality

• The unconscious mind influences behavior.
• Structure of Personality
• Id: Operates on the pleasure principle, seeking immediate gratification.
• Ego: Functions on the reality principle, mediating between the id and external reality.
• Superego: Incorporates societal standards and values, striving for perfection.
• Levels of Awareness
• Conscious: Thoughts currently in awareness.
• Preconscious: Memories that can be readily brought to mind.
• Unconscious: Desires influencing behavior but not easily accessible.
• Defense Mechanisms
• Repression: Burying distressing thoughts in the unconscious.
• Projection: Attributing unacceptable feelings to others.
• Displacement: Redirecting emotions to a safer target.
• Rationalization: Using excuses.
• Sublimation: Channeling impulses into acceptable activities.

Erik Erikson's Theory of Psychosocial Development

• Outlines eight stages, each with a conflict influencing personality.
• Trust vs. Mistrust (Birth to 1 year): Successful resolution fosters security.
• Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (1 to 3 years): Encouragement leads to autonomy.
• Initiative vs. Guilt (3 to 6 years): Support leads to initiative.
• Industry vs. Inferiority (6 to 12 years): Achievement leads to a sense of industry.
• Identity vs. Role Confusion (Adolescence): Successful exploration leads to a self of sense.
• Intimacy vs. Isolation (Early Adulthood): Success leads to strong relationships.
• Generativity vs. Stagnation (Middle Adulthood): Success leads to feelings of usefulness.
• Integrity vs. Despair (Late Adulthood): A sense of fulfillment leads to feelings of integrity.

Carl Rogers's Person-Centered Theory

• Emphasizes the potential for personal growth and self-fulfillment.
• Self-Concept.
• Beliefs about one's own nature and qualities.
• A well-aligned self-concept leads to a harmonious self-view.
• Incongruence. -Gap between self-concept and reality, leading to distress. -Unconditional Positive Regard. -Acceptance and love without conditions.
• The Fully Functioning Person is open to new experiences and continually strives toward self-actualization.

Abraham Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

• A five-tiered model.
• Physiological Needs of food, water, and shelter.
• Safety Needs of personal security and financial stability.
• Love and Belongingness Needs fulfilled through friendships and family.
• Esteem Needs through feelings of accomplishment.
• Self-Actualization is the pursuit of reaching one's full potential.

Big Five Model of Personality

• Human personality can be described using five broad dimensions.
• Openness to Experience as imaginative and curious.
• Conscientiousness as organized and dependable.
• Extraversion as outgoing and sociable.
• Agreeableness as compassionate.
• Neuroticism as the tendency to have stress and anxiety.

Types of Stressors

• Major Life Events require significant adjustments.
• Daily Hassles accumulate and lead to stress.
• Chronic Stressors are ongoing that lead to burnout.
• Catastrophic Events can cause intense stress.
• Environmental Stressors stem from the physical environment like noise.

Type A and Type B Personality

• Type A Personality: Competitive, impatient, and prone to stress.
• Type B Personality: Relaxed, patient, and less prone to stress.
• Stress Response
• Type A individuals react with urgency.
• Type B individuals handle stress more calmly.
• Work Style
• Type A individuals often seek efficiency.
• Type B individuals may take a relaxed approach.

Stress and the Physiological Response

• Fight-or-Flight Response activates the sympathetic nervous system.
• Increases heart rate, blood pressure, and respiration rate.
• General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS) describes responses to prolonged stress.
• Alarm Reaction
• Resistance
• Exhaustion
• Hypothalamic–Pituitary–Adrenal (HPA) Axis is a system that promotes the release of cortisol.
• Chronic Stress can lead to a weakened immune system and mental health disorders.

Coping With Stress

• Problem-Focused Coping addresses the source of stress.
• Emotion-Focused Coping manages the emotional responses to stress.
• Social Support seek assistance from others.
• Cognitive Reappraisal changes one's way of thinking about a stressor.
• Avoidance Coping evades the stressor.
• Adaptive Coping manages stress and promotes resilience.
• Maladaptive Coping can exacerbate stress in the long run.
• Resilience enhances the ability to cope with stress.
• Maintaining Social Connections and practicing mindfulness reduces stress.

ABC Model of Emotional Reactions

• The ABC Model of Emotional Reactions that help understand how individuals respond emotionally to events developed by Albert Ellis
• Activating Event (A) the external situation that triggers a response.
• Beliefs (B) are interpretations about the activating event either rational or irrational.
• Consequences (C) that are emotional and behavioral outcomes.
• The model emphasizes that beliefs cause emotional reactions.

Explores social motives like achievement, affiliation, and power, shaped by interactions and culture. Also covers evolutionary influences on mating, including parental investment theory, and sex-based mate preferences.