Skyscraper Definition, Features and History

Definition of a Skyscraper

• A tall, continuously habitable building that has multiple floors is considered a skyscraper
• These are for residential, commercial, or mixed-use purposes
• Modern skyscrapers must be at least 100 meters (330 feet) tall
• Supertall buildings reach 150 meters (490 feet) and above
• Buildings featuring 10-20 stories were considered skyscrapers, in the 1880s

Purpose & Key Features

• Primary functions include commercial, residential, and mixed-use spaces
• Commercial spaces are offices and retail areas
• Residential are apartments and condos
• Mixed-use is a mix of hotel, office, and retail

Key Features

• Steel frameworks replace thick masonry walls and provide stability
• Curtain walls allow for larger window areas and are not load-bearing
• Elevators are essential for high-rise accessibility

Pre-Skyscraper Era & Early Innovations

• Roman apartments had 7–8 stories
• Medieval Scottish tenements reached up to 14 stories
• Pre-skyscraper height was limited by thick masonry walls and a lack of water pumps

Key Innovations

• Mass-produced steel, invented by Henry Bessemer, allowed for lighter, stronger structures
• Safe passenger elevators, invented by Elisha Graves Otis (1850s), made upper floors practical for living and business

The First Skyscrapers

• Home Insurance Building in Chicago (1885) is considered the world’s first skyscraper
• It featured 10 stories (138 ft), later expanding to 12 stories
• William Le Baron Jenney designed it, and it was the first to use a structural steel frame
• The Wainwright Building in St. Louis (1890) was designed by Louis Sullivan, the "Father of Skyscrapers"
• Vertical bands were introduced to emphasize height

Global Expansion

• Chicago is the birthplace of skyscrapers and the skeleton frame
• New York City pushed height limits with buildings like the Chrysler Building and Empire State Building
• Europe had limited early adoption due to fire safety and aesthetic concerns
• Early European examples include Boerentoren (Antwerp, 1932) and Torre Piacentini (Genoa, 1940)
• Asia & the Middle East had a rapid skyscraper boom in the late 20th - 21st century
• Notable examples include the Burj Khalifa (Dubai), the world’s tallest building, and the Shanghai Tower (Shanghai)

Key Technological & Design Innovations

• Steel frames replaced thick masonry walls
• Curtain walls allowed for more glass, improving lighting & aesthetics
• Tubular designs improved resistance to wind & seismic forces

Aerodynamics & Wind Resistance

• Optimized shapes like tapered designs, setbacks, and curved corners reduce wind loads
• Structural damping utilizes Tuned Mass Dampers (TMDs) to absorb vibrations

Vertical Transportation

• Elevators are a key component in skyscrapers
• Modern advancements include double-deck and high-speed elevators for efficiency

Environmental & Social Impacts

• Green building practices include solar panels and wind turbines
• Water conservation includes rainwater harvesting and graywater recycling
• Increased energy efficiency through advanced HVAC systems and efficient lighting
• Urban density maximizes land use and reduces urban sprawl
• Cultural significance represents economic power & technological progress

Design Principles for Tall Buildings

• Structural stability uses braced tubes, diagrids, and outrigger systems to resist wind & earthquakes
• Efficient space utilization allows for multi-functional spaces for commercial, residential, and retail
• Human-centric design incorporates sky gardens and terraces for community interaction

Future Trends

• Smart technology for energy management, security, and automation
• Sustainable design for net-zero energy buildings with carbon-neutral materials
• Vertical urbanism connects skyscrapers with skybridges and shared utilities

Definition of an Intelligent Building

• An intelligent building integrates tech and systems
• It creatis an efficient, sustainable environment
• The IBI maximizes tech performance cost efficiency
• Intelligent buildings focus on automation, energy efficiency, and occupant comfort

Historical Context

• In the 1980s the goal was to integrate: Energy efficiency, Safety, Telecommunications and Automation

Core Components of Intelligent Buildings

• Occupants: Ensured comfort, security, and productivity using smart systems
• Structure and Systems are designed to minimize environmental impact and maximize adaptability
• Advanced Technologies use IT and Automation to enhance building performance, address user experience challenges and address energy and environmental issues

Key Features

• Building Management Systems (BMS) control lighting, HVAC, security, and energy usage
• Sensors & IoT devices monitor building efficiency in real-time
• Energy-efficient designs use solar panels, wind turbines, and smart energy systems

Green Building Rating Systems

• These systems encourage sustainable practices in building design, construction, and operations
• Green buildings reduce costs by improving energy and water efficiency
• They improve health by by improving air quality and lighting
• They support sustainability by alignment with global environmental goals

Global Rating systems

• LEED is Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design developed by the US Green Building council
• CASBEE evaluates environmental performance in buildings and urban areas
• BERDE(Building for Ecologically Responsive Design Excellence) is specifically for the Phillipines and built by The Phillipines Green Building council

Technologies in Intelligent Buildings

• Building Automation Systems (BAS) function to monitor and control elements like security as well as lighting
• BAS systems reduce overall costs but improves safety and comfort
• The systems also support remote monitoring

Building-Wide Systems

• Smart HVAC systems adjust based on weather and building use
• Advanced Energy Systems make use of renewable sources
• Lighting systems adjust based on occupancy and sunlight

Principles of Sustainability

• Energy Efficiency : Technology reduces energy waste and water is recycled
• Reduced Waste: Waste Management minimizes amount during construction and daily building use
• Sustainable Buildings: first Net Metropolis building in the Phillipines

Social & Financial Benefits

• Intelligent Buildings enhance the health of their occupants as well as providing communal spaces
• From a economical standpoint these buildings lower costs and increase property value

Future of Intelligent Buildings

• These buildings use AI and Machine Learning to predict energy needs and are designed to withstand climate change in the modern world

Introduction to The Evolution of High-Rise Buildings

• High-rise buildings have evolved through advancements in engineering, materials, and urbanization
• They are categorized based on architectural and technological innovations

Types of High-Rise Buildings

• Office Buildings mainly for operational and administrative functions
• Hotel Buildings which usually provide short term accommodations
• Residential Buildings Apartments and condominiums for long-term residential stays
• Mixed-Use Buildings Combine offices, residences, shopping centers, and hotels

Evolution of High-Rise Buildings: 1st Generation (1885-1916): Load-Bearing Structures

• Elevator Innovation: Introduced by Elisha Otis in 1854, enabling skyscraper construction
• Material Advancements: Steel frames replaced masonry, allowing taller structures
• Notable Architects: Louis Sullivan, Dankmar Adler, Daniel Burnham
• Curtain Wall System: Allowed flexible, lightweight facades

Key Features of 1st Generation High Rise Buildings

• Walls were thick and heavy to support building loads
• Brick, stone, and cast iron used for construction and Columns made of cast iron
• Floors built with wood presented a high fire risk and Fire hazards were common due to open stairways and elevator shafts

2nd Generation (1916-1940): Early Steel-Framed Buildings

• Zoning Laws (1916): Required setbacks to prevent blocking sunlight
• Art Deco Style: Emphasized geometric patterns and decorative facades.
• Notable Architects: William Van Alen (Chrysler Building)
• Structural Improvements: Taller buildings with central service cores

Key Features for 2nd Generation High Rise Buildings

• Steel-framed structures replaced thick masonry walls and concrete floors were introduced for fire resistance
• Masonry enclosures protected steel elements

3rd Generation (1940-1973): Modern Skyscrapers

• Key Developments are related to simplicity and functionality such as the work of the Second Chicago School
• Minimalist Approach: Focus on simplicity and functionality Notable Architects: Mies van der Rohe
• Structural Innovations with Tube-frame structures for stability

4th Generation (1973-Present): High-Tech Architecture

• High-Tech Design used prefabricated modules and energy-efficient systems
• Open Spaces: Atriums, roof gardens, and sustainable designs were popularized
• Sustainable Design allowed for the Use of natural ventilation and renewable energy Notable Architects: Norman Foster
• Notable Buildings: Commerzbank Tower, Burj Khalifa

5th Generation (1997-Present): Post-9/11 is focused on safety and innovations

• Developed energy efficiency and used advanced materials as well as systems
• Enhanced and used structural resilience to enhance Earthquake Resistance

Braced-Frame Structures For Buildings

• This system is used in buildings that face lateral loads, like wind and earthquakes to enhance stability
• This is done economically and Members are typically made of structural steel

Bracing Systems According to Orientation

• Vertical: transfers horizontal loads to the foundation
• Horizontal: transfers horizontal forces to vertical bracing

Types of Bracing

• Single Diagonals: inserters diagonal members into rectangular areas
• Cross-bracing: uses two diagonal connections at beam and column joints
• Knee Bracing: improves ductility of frames by placing knee elements at the top, bottom, or both ends of a brace

Additional Structural Considerations

• Bracing systems require regular maintenance and early repairs
• Cost surcharge can increase costs
• Flexibility may affect modifications to the structure

Advantages of Rigid Frame Structures

• Steel frames are strong yet lightweight
• Steel frames and concrete frames hold strength

Examples of Rigid frame Structures

Lever House (New York, 1952) Home Insurance Building (Chicago, 1885)

Function of Shear-Walls

• These walls transfer horizontal forces and provide support for tall structures

Structural Components

• These Systems reduce building deformation
• Load Distribution: distributes stress to the foundation

Types of Shear Walls

• Concrete: provides greater strength to structure
• Steel Plate: constructed with steel for both small and large buildings

Consideration for Design

• Wind: seismic designs are crucial for minimizing potential damage to exterior and interior

Structural Core Systems

• These help stabilize heavy resistance from top zones
• Helps with stability

Types of Support Systems

• Positioned far from center along corners or edges
• Positioned on the interior and exterior

Diagrids in Structural Systems

• A diagrid structure utilizes a triangular or rhomboid to eliminate structural damage efficiently Eliminates all vertical columns using to better the buildings foundation

Benefits

• Maximizes use of natural light which helps stabilize and secure
• Offers better rigidity

Facets of Designs

• Nodes are used to support all connections
• Core of the Main framework stabilizes with all aspects

Benefits Of Support Systems

• Increases rigidity through lighter loads, more flexible, while being more economically effficient

Complex Structural Desgin

• Balancing the loads on the frameworks is key for ensuring overall stability and reducing chances for collapse.
• Precision reduces unessesary costs

Explore the definition, features, and history of skyscrapers. Learn about their evolution from early high-rise buildings to modern structures. Discover key features such as steel frameworks, curtain walls, and elevators.