Single-Case Research in Psychology

• Chapter focuses on scientific method development, single-case research in psychology, and its evolution in sport and exercise.

Introduction

• Research methods modules often overlook single-case research designs, citing group design research (Hrycaiko and Martin 1996).
• Practitioners like sport psychologists and exercise physiologists often consult with individuals or small groups, necessitating methods that suit behavior change in these contexts (Kinugasa et al. 2004).
• Studying specific issues, such as injury or burnout, can be challenging with group designs due to recruitment difficulties (Kinugasa et al. 2004).
• Many classic findings originate from single-case designs (Mook 2001).

Early Scientific Inquiry

• Individuals and movements contributed to science and modelling performance variables mathematically (Ittenbach and Lawhead 1996).
• Measurement is a primary concern with a history that shaped research designs.
• Thales predicted a solar eclipse in 585 BC via observations, noting a natural order.
• The Pythagoreans thought everything could be understood by numbers.
• Anaximenes (c. 545 BC) performed recorded scientific experiment, reporting temperature changes from mouth shape altered exhaled air.
• Quantity changes in output produced qualitative changes in events (Ittenbach and Lawhead 1996).
• Socrates (c. 470-399 BC), Plato (c. 428-348 BC) and Aristotle (c. 384-322 BC) established baselines for contemporary scientific inquiry.
• Socrates believed in fixed and stable truths achieved via discussion and rigorous questioning (Socratic or dialectic method).
• Plato established integrated reasoning and mathematical reasoning can reveal all things
• Aristotle modified Socrates/Plato contributions. Science splits to theoretical versus practical. Basic versus applied.

Traditions of Experimental Design

• Before the 13th/14th centuries, intellectual life emphasized theology over scientific exploration.
• Experimentation advances started during the 15th-19th centuries, allowed research fields to develop, exemplified by electromagnetism/gas/mechanics studies.
• Controlled conditions with scientists repeating observations, ensure repeatability and to draw comparisons with their first.
• Experiments used to permit comparisons with first observations as natural observation alone is inadequate (Johnston and Pennypacker 1993).
• Scientific inference bases on group comparisons: social enumeration, economic quantification, and mathematical statistics. Agricultural experimentation a 4th dimension.
• Social enumeration is tied to census of people and property. Economic quantification involved monarchs counting people and resources for military might.
• Fisher (1935) developed statistical methods to evaluate agricultural data with publication of The Design of Experiments.

Single vs Group Research

• Galton (1822-1911), Pearson (1857-1936) & Fisher all influenced statistics.
• Galton the 1st mathematical correlation expression.
• Pearson: standard deviation/sampling distributions.
• Fisher (focus on agriculture): statistical methods to evaluate agricultural data.
• Single-case research designs displeased researchers due to small sample size/absence of controls (Chaddock 1925).
• Fisher's 1925 book emphasized group comparisons/analysis of variance test.
• 1930s journal publications shifted to larger samples with statistical evaluation.
• Basic control design became paradigm
• Fisher's work focused on describing population characteristics with means and standard deviations.
• Johnston and Pennypacker (1993) stated group comparisons' generality to individuals is problematic. Human behavior happens at the individual level.
• Psychology science attempts to understand an individual/their environment.
• Single-case research can make a contribution with some scientific understanding.
• Kazdin (1982) gives experimental groups treatment but withhold from the control groups, statistical methods dictate differences between groups (probability before study).
• Single-case research can make a contribution even with its use of small numbers/absence of comparison/control groups.
• Research aims (describe, understand, predict, control) may involve anxiety's influence on sport performance.
• Single-case research address all, but most often intervention efficacy.

Scientific Methods

• Two contrasting approaches to the scientific method: positivism and postpositivism(falsification)
• Positivism says natural world follows systematic, orderly, predictable laws that humans capable of understanding/shaping (Gergen 1991). Includes only measurable, quantifiable, and observable with human senses.
• Popper's argued that positivism is more for researchers to be more concerned justifying theory rather than falsifying it.
• Postpositivists have more limited view than positive view of our ability to 'really know' (Brustad 2002). Cumulative process from study to study (Conroy, Kaye and Schantz 2002).
• Use of scientific method allows single case research to either test propositions or falsify hypotheses. Key is sufficient control in the design over independent/extraneous variables.
• Conducting research in the field a single case research biggest challenge over extraneous variables

Case Studies vs Single Case Research

• Situations pose methodological/ethical change challenges

• Important: sufficient control over key variables can be achieved with designs-valid/meaningful conclusions from data.

• Case studies didn't interest serious applied researchers in the 1940s and 1950s since there was no effects of treatment (Barlow et al. 2009).

• Clinicians lacked data collection equipment in therapeutic hour nor were they to able to take detailed notes nor could they protect confidentiality.

• Scientists unable to distinguish the uncontrolled case study from the experimental study of an individual.

• Stake (2000, p. 436) states case study is 'both a process of inquiry about the case and the product of that inquiry' - 'specific, unique, and bounded.' qualitative inquiry in psychology branch.

• Case studies complexity differ. Testing an individual unique to interesting way (Smith 1988; Stake 1988). Krane, Greenleaf and Snow (1997) social-cognitive case study of elite gymnast/her family + coaches.

• Researchers overlook distinction w single-case over case studies (Blampied 2000). descriptive, usually can't support inferences. emphasizes graphs/relies on single cases vs hypothesis testing.

Background to single case research

• Allport (1937, 1962) described nomothetic, (Greek meaning law). Idiographic, (Greek term meaning 1's own/private experience). Psychoanalysis developed around cases Freud saw and analyzed (1933-1964).

• Cases through have history developed major developments in theory and practice. Our knowledge of the aided psychology via studies Phineas Gage

• Skinner/colleagues refined single-case study of animal behaviour, allow intensive studies (Barlow et al. 2009). Sidman's (1960) defined methodology/conditions of true analysis.

• Skinner/colleagues est. 1958 Journal Experimental Analysis Behavior (JEAB). Published data from single subject (Morgan and Morgan 2009). Study of singe case with a Journal published in 1968 Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis. termed experimental analysis of behaviour and applied problems termed behaviour modification (Barlow et al. 2009).

Sport and Exercise

• Relatively young. Norman Triplett intrigued in time known racing faster if paced or riding alone rather than either (Hogg and Vaughan 2008; Kremer and Moran 2008).

• Experiment schoolchildren worked in 2 conditions solo vs pairs. Many regard this first experiment.

• Coleman R. Griffith began writing/researching/practicing Psychology. Books, The Psychology of Coaching and Psychology of Athletics.

• 1972, Rushall/Siedentop book The Development and Control of Behavior in Sport and Physical Educaton. drew Skinner's writings for shape/generalize skills (Martin, Thompson and Regehr 2004). 1974, the Journal Applied Behavior Analysis published application in setting.

• 1970s, Smith, Smoll et al. assessed effects/actions of Little League baseball coaches. 1980s, Allison/Ayllon (single) designs coaching developed football and tennis. 1983, Koop/Martin design drop by beginning swimmers.

• Three new journals established 1979 Journal of Sport Behavior and Journal of Sport Psychology. 1987: Sport Psychologist and 1989 Journal Applied Sport

• Since the 1970s, Increase steady in single cases over past decades. Though single case tool for design is useful in in design sport/exercise, neglected tool (Hrycaiko and Martin 1996). Twelve designed 96 (Hrycaiko/Martin)

Summary

• Sport designs and studies in are rarely designed in exercise and sports
• Designs from single cases offer scientific rigorous application
• Valuable research found from designs