Shaping and Prompting

Shaping and Prompting

Shaping

• Used to develop a target behavior

• The target behavior is one that a person does not currently exhibit

• Differential reinforcement of successive approximations of a target behavior

• This continues until the person exhibits the target behavior.

• Differential reinforcement involves the basic principles of reinforcement and extinction.

• Differential reinforcement occurs when one behavior is reinforced

• All other behaviors are not reinforced in a particular situation.

  • DR = reinforcing the closest approximation of the target behavior

• The behavior that is reinforced increases

• Behaviors that are not reinforced decreases through extinction.

Shaping - How To

• Define the target behavior.
• Determine if shaping is the most appropriate procedure.
• Identify the starting behavior.
• Choose the shaping steps.
• Choose the reinforcer.
• Differentially reinforce each successive approximation.
• Move through the shaping steps at a proper pace.

Prompting

• Used to increase the likelihood that a person will engage in the correct behavior at the right time.

• Used during discrimination training

• Helps the person engage in the correct behavior in the presence of the discriminative stimulus (SD) so the behavior gets reinforced.

  • Prompts = stimuli given before or during the performance of a behavior
  • Prompts help behavior occur for the teacher to reinforce it

• Function of prompts is to produce an instance of the correct behavior so that it can be reinforced.

  • The teacher provides supplemental stimuli (prompts) with the SD
  • So that the student will exhibit the correct behavior.

• The teacher then reinforces it

• Behavior will eventually occur whenever the SD is present,

Fading

• Gradual elimination of the prompt as the behavior continues to occur in the presence of the SD
• Way to transfer stimulus control from the prompts to the SD.
• Once the prompts are removed, the behavior is under the stimulus control of the SD

Stimulus Prompts

• Within-stimulus Prompts

  • Change the salience (quality or prominence) of an SD
  • Change the position of the SD
  • Change of some dimension of the SD, such as size, shape, color, or intensity

• Extra stimulus Prompts

  • Adding a stimulus to increase the likelihood of correct discrimination

  • Picture prompts: which includes objects, pictures, drawings, or symbols

Types of Prompts

• Response prompts: another person evokes the desired response in the presence of the SD
  • Verbal prompts, gestural prompts, modeling prompts, and physical prompts
• Stimulus prompts: involves some change/addition/removal of a stimulus, to make a correct response more likely
  • Within-stimulus prompt, extra stimulus prompt

Transfer of Stimulus Control

• Prompt fading is the most used method of transferring stimulus control.
  • Response prompt is removed gradually across learning trials until it is no longer provided

Types of Prompt Fading

• Eliminate prompt in just one step
• Fading across different types of prompts or fading across prompts
• Least-to-most prompting and fading (system of least prompts)
• Most-to-least prompting and fading

Least to Most Prompting and Fading

• Job coach provides the least intrusive prompt first

• Followed by more intrusive prompts, if needed

• This continues until the correct behavior occurs

  • Example: If Lucy doesn't pull the paper out, the job coach uses verbal prompt first

  • Gestural prompt is given if Lucy doesn't respond in 5 seconds

  • Modeling the correct behavior is done if Lucy doesn't respond in 5 seconds

  • If Lucy still does not respond, the job coach uses physical guidance

• The sequence till Lucy responds correctly.

• Over trials, Lucy will make the correct response before the physical prompt is needed

• Then before the modeling prompt

• Then before the gestural prompt, until eventually she needs no prompt at all

Most to Least Prompting and Fading

• The most intrusive prompt is used first and is then faded to less intrusive prompts

• Used when the trainer believes the learner will need a physical prompt to engage in the correct behavior:

  • Using this, the job coach would start by providing both a physical prompt with a verbal prompt.

  • Start to fade the physical prompt as Lucy successfully executed the behavior

  • Verbal and gestural prompt provided once physical prompt is faded

  • As Lucy continued success, the gestural prompt is faded. Only verbal prompt provided

  • The verbal prompt is faded as Lucy correctly took the paper out of the shoe with no assistance.

Prompt Delay

• When the SD is presented, wait a number of seconds
• If the correct response isn't made, give the prompt
• Time delay between presenting SD and prompt can be constant or progressive

Stimulus Fading

• Eventually the stimulus prompts must be removed

• This is done through a process of stimulus fading

• Stimulus control transferred to the natural SD.

• If the stimulus prompt involved an extra stimulus prompt to get the correct response

• It would involve gradually removing that additional stimulus as the response starts happening reliably in the presence of the SD.

• Stimulus fading is also for within-stimulus prompts or SD

• Gradual change of the SD from its altered form to its natural form

Transfer of Stimulus Control

• Prompt fading: The response prompt is eliminated gradually as the behavior occurs in the presence of the SD.
• Prompt delay: After the SD is presented, the prompt is delayed to provide the opportunity for an unprompted response to occur.
• Stimulus fading: The stimulus prompt is eliminated gradually as the behavior occurs in the presence of the SD.

How to use prompting & stimulus control

• Choose the most appropriate prompting strategy.
  • Use response prompts if a novel behavior is being taught
  • Use more intrusive prompts for learners with disabilities
  • If learners are capable of following instructions, use less intrusive prompts -Use graduated prompt strategies or (least-to-most strategy/ system of least prompts) if unsure of prompt level
• Get the learner’s attention
• Present the SD
• Prompt the correct response
• Reinforce the correct behavior
• Transfer stimulus control
• Reinforce unprompted responses

Chaining

• Behavioral chain: complex activity with links in a certain order, usually motor responses.
  • Each stephas a discriminative stimulus (SD) and a response (R);
  • Each response (except the very last one) results in an SD for the next R
  • Each SD (except the first one) serves as a reinforcer for the last R

Task Analysis

• Process of analyzing a behavioral chain
• Done by breaking it down into individual stimulus-response components
• Task analysis can be done in different ways:
  • Observe a competent person engage in the task
  • Ask an expert
  • Perform the task yourself and record each of the component SDs and responses

Forward Chaining

• Teach the first component, then the second component, and so on (front to end)

• Present the first SD, prompt the correct response, and provide a reinforcer after the response.

• Then prompts faded until the person is engaging in the first response without any prompts when the first SD is presented

Backward Chaining

• Prompting and fading used to teach the last behavior in the chain first.
• By starting with the last behavior in the chain, the learner completes the chain on every learning trial.
• Once it is mastered then teach the next to last behavior.
• Finally, as the learner engages in the last two behaviors in the chain without any prompts, the next behavior up the chain is taught.

Total Task Presentation

• Complex chain of behaviors is taught as a single unit.
• Total task is completed in each learning trial.
• Prompts used for learner to engage in entire chain of behaviors from start to finish
• Graduated guidance: providing less and less assistance and shadow the learner's hand as they complete a task
• Shadowing: keeps your hand close to the learner's hand during behavior

When to use Total Task Presentation

• When teaching a task that is not too long or too complex
• Consider the learner's ability level, and the teacher's ability level

Other strategies for teaching behavior chains

• Written task analysis
• Picture prompts
• Video modeling
• Self-instructions

Behavioral Skills Training (BST) Procedures

• BST procedures: instructions, modeling, rehearsal, and feedback
• Used together to help someone acquire useful skills (social or job-related skills).
• They are typically used to teach skills that can be simulated in a role play.

Components of the Behavioral Skills Training Procedure

• Instructions
• Modeling
• Rehearsal
• Feedback

Instruction

• Describe/ explain the appropriate skill or behavior to the learner
• Instructions should be specific, clear, and lay out expectations and consequences for appropriate behavior
• Directives on how the task is to be completed and the rationale of the skill/task specified

Factors for effective instructions

• Instructions should be presented at a level that the learner can understand.
• Instructions should be delivered by someone with credibility
• Instructions should be paired with modeling whenever observing the behavior will enhance potential for mastering it
• Instructions should be given only when the learner is paying attention.
• The learner should repeat the instructions so that the teacher knows they were heard correctly.
• The learner should rehearse the behavior ASAP.

Modeling

• Correct behavior demonstrated for the learner
• The learner observes the model's behavior and then imitates the model
• Learner must have an imitative repertoire for modeling to be effective.
• Modeling may be live or symbolic

Effectiveness factors for modeling

• The model exhibits the correct behavior
  • It should result in a successful outcome (a reinforcer) for the model.
• Model should resemble the observers or have high status.
• Complexity of the model's behavior should be appropriate to the developmental or ability level of the learner.
• Learner has to pay attention to the model to learn the behavior being modeled.
• Modeled behavior must occur in the proper context
• Modeled behavior should be repeated as often as necessary for learner to imitate it correctly.
• The behavior should be modeled in a variety of ways and in a variety of situations to enhance generalization.

Rehearsal

• Opportunity for the learner to practice behavior after receiving instructions/watching a model

Influence Factors For Effective Rehearsals

• Practiced in the proper context, either in the situation or role-play.
• Rehearsals should be programmed for success - practice easy behaviors so they are successful.
• Correct behavior should be followed by praise immediately.
• Partly correct/incorrect rehearsals should be followed by with corrective feedback.
• Rehearsed until it is demonstrated correctly.

Feedback

• It involves praise/reinforcers for correct performance.
• The instructor provides calm, factual, and helpful feedback to the learner
• Provides rewards for successful performance and more training on whatever the learner still needs help learning.

Factors That Influence the Effectiveness of Feedback

• Should be given immediately after the behavior
• Should always involve praise (or other reinforcers) for some aspect of the behavior
• Praise should be descriptive
• Don't be negative if corrective feedback is given
• Always praise before giving corrective feedback
• One aspect of performance at a time with the corrective feedback

Enhancing Generalization after Behavioral Skills Training

• BST procedures is for the learner to get new skills and use these skills in appropriate circumstances outside of training sessions.
  • Training should involve a variety of role-plays that simulate the actual situations the learner is likely to encounter in real life.
  • Incorporate real-life situations into training.
  • Provide assignments for the learner to practice the skill being learned outside the BST session, in a real-life situation.
  • Trainer can arrange for reinforcement of the skills in situations outside the training sessions.

Behavioral Skills Training and the Three-Term Contingency

• Three-term contingency (antecedents, behavior, and consequences of B) used in any teaching situation:
• Instructions and modeling = antecedent strategies to evoke the correct behavior.
• Rehearsal = executing the behavior described and modeled.
• Corrective feedback functions as an antecedent = evokes the correct behavior for reinforcement in the next rehearsal

How To Use Behavioral Skills Training Procedures

• Identify/define the skills you want to teach:

  • Identify all relevant SDs in which the skills must be used.

  • Assess the learner’s skills in the relevant situations to establish a baseline. -Begin training with the easiest skill or situation

  • Present instructions and modeling

  • Rehearsal opportunity after receiving them

  • Immediately after rehearsal, provide feedback.

  • Repeat rehearsal/feedback until the behavior is executed correctly multiple times

  • After mastering one situation, move onto another and continue BST

  • Once mastered those, program for generalization to the natural situations!

Reinforcement

• Process in which a behavior is strengthened by the immediate consequence that reliably follows its occurrence.

  • A particular behavior occurs
  • It’s followed by an immediate consequence
  • Results in the strengthening of the behavior – this means it is more likely to happen again

• We determine that a behavior is strengthened if it increases in frequency, duration, intensity, or speed or decreased latency

• A behavior that is strengthened through the process of reinforcement is called an operant behavior.

• The consequence that strengthens an operant behavior is called a reinforcer.

• Reinforce behavior, NOT the person!

• Say that you reinforce a behavior, strengthenING it by reinforcing it

• Don't just say that you reinforce a person!

Positive and Negative Reinforcement

• Whenever deciding if a situation illustrates positive or negative reinforcement, go through these steps:
  • What is the behavior?
  • What happened immediately after the behavior?
  • What happened to the behavior in the future?

Social and Automatic Reinforcement

• Social reinforcement: A behavior produces a reinforcing consequence through actions of another person.
• Automatic reinforcement: A behavior produces a reinforcing consequence through direct contact with physical environment

Escape and Avoidance Behaviors

• Escape behavior: Behavior results in terminating aversive stimulus ,already present
• Avoidance behavior: Behavior that prevents an aversive stimulus from occurring.

Unconditioned and Conditioned Reinforcers

• Natural reinforcers = unconditioned reinforcers = primary reinforcers

  • They function as reinforcers the first time they are presented without any experience

• Conditioned reinforcer = secondary reinforcer

  • Used to be neutral, but became a reinforcer by being paired with an unconditioned reinforcer or one that's been conditioned.

Factors That Influence the Effectiveness of Reinforcement

• Immediacy: For a consequence to be a reinforcer, it should be occur immediately after the response.
• Contingency: Consequence happens more likely and reinforces response when a contingency exists
• Individual differences: Likeliness of a consequence varying from person to person
• Magnitude: As a general rule, the more intense a stim is, the more effective

Positive Punishment Procedures

• Uses the Premack principle, which means someone works to avoid something they don't prefer instead of a non-preferred task

Applying Aversive Activities

• Teacher instructs child to engage in aversive activity immediately when the problem behavior happens
• Physical guidance is used to make child engage in the behavior.
• Eventually, the child should engage in it when commanded to, and avoid physical guidance.

Overcorrection

• Decrease aggressive and disruptive behaviors
• The child has to engage in an effortful behavior for an extended period
• This period is contingent on each instance of the problem behavior
  • Positive practice
  • Restitution

Positive Practice

• Child has to engage in correct forms of behavior
• Contingent on an instance of the problem behavior.
• The child engages in the correct behavior, with physical guidance for an extended period (5-15 minutes) or until correct behavior is repeated a few times.

Restitution

• Contingent on each instance of the problem behavior
• Child has to correct problems in the environment and restore it to a state that is better than before the bad behavior.
• Physical guidance as needed

Guided Compliance

• In guided compliance, the individual moves physically through requested activity contingent on problem behavior.
• If physical guidance isn’t a punisher, then the procedure shouldn’t be used

Physical Restraint

• It involves holding the part of their body that's involved in the bad behavior if a problem behavior happens.
• This prevents the child from continuing to engage in the bad behavior.
• Response blocking: the teacher prevents the occurrence of the problem behavior physically

Cautions In Using Aversive Activities

 Aversives should only be used when physical guidance available
Make sure that the the child won't resist physically -- you must be sure it can be carried out in that case
Use only if the physical procedure isn't reinforcing
 Make sure the procedure can be done without harming the child or teacher

Application of Aversive Stimulation

• Delivering aversive stim after the problem behavior happens
• So the behavior is less likely to happen in the future

Considerations In Using Aversive Stimuli

• Should be a last resort
• Use functional interventions first.
• Implement differential reinforcement with punishment.
• Consdier the function of the problem behavior
• Choose the aversive stim carefully
• Collect data to make treatment decisions
• Safety comes first for all parties