Seven Years' War (1754–1763)

The Seven Years’ War (1754–1763)

• The Seven Years' War, also known as the French and Indian War, was one of several wars for empire between the British and French.
• Colonial expansion into the Ohio Valley by English settlers, opposed by French fortified outposts, led to the war.
• George Washington led a colonial contingent that attacked a French outpost, resulting in a loss and his surrender.
• Most Native Americans allied with the French due to their historically positive relations.
• England gained control of Canada and almost all land east of the Mississippi Valley after winning the war.
• France retained only a few small, profitable islands, highlighting mercantilist priorities.

The Seven Years' War: Consequences

• English Prime Minister William Pitt supported the colonists, encouraging their participation in the war, however sentiments changed with ensuing leadership.
• The English victory negatively impacted Native Americans, who previously benefited from French and English disputes.
• English expansionism was disruptive to the Native Americans’ way of life.
• The English raised prices on goods and stopped paying rent on western forts after the war.
• Ottawa war chief Pontiac led a rebellion in the Ohio Valley, attacking colonial outposts.
• The Paxton Boys, Scots-Irish frontiersmen in Pennsylvania, responded by murdering members of the Susquehannock tribe.

Albany Plan of Union

• Benjamin Franklin developed the Albany Plan of Union in 1754.
• The plan proposed an intercolonial government and a system for collecting taxes for colonial defense.
• Representatives from seven colonies met in Albany, New York, to discuss the plan.
• Franklin attempted to negotiate a treaty with the Iroquois.
• The colonies rejected the plan due to unwillingness to relinquish control over taxation and unite under a single legislature.
• Franklin's frustration was captured in a political cartoon of a broken snake with the words "Join or Die."

Taxation without Representation

• Financing the war led to a massive debt for the British government.
• King George III and Prime Minister George Grenville thought colonists should contribute to paying the debt.
• Colonists believed they had already met their obligations by providing soldiers.

New Regulations and Taxes:

• Parliament imposed new regulations and taxes on the colonists.
• The Sugar Act of 1764 established new duties and provisions to deter molasses smugglers.
• Colonial resistance to trade and manufacturing regulations was minimal prior to the decade before the Revolutionary War.
• The Sugar Act lowered the duty on molasses from the West Indies.

Colonial Response:

• Colonists were angered by stricter enforcement of regulations and collection of duties.
• Colonial shippers found it difficult to avoid minor violations of the Sugar Act.
• Violators were arrested and tried in vice-admiralty courts without juries.
• Some colonists felt that Parliament was overstepping its authority and violating their rights as Englishmen.

Colonial Discontent:

• The Sugar Act, Currency Act, and Proclamation of 1763 caused significant discontent in the colonies.
• Colonists resented British attempts to exert greater control.
• Britain ended its policy of salutary neglect.
• An economic depression further worsened the situation.
• Colonial protest was disorganized and ineffective.

The Stamp Act:

• Parliament passed the Stamp Act in 1765 to raise revenue.
• Colonists were awakened to the likelihood of more taxes.
• The colonies' tradition of self-taxation was being unjustly taken by Parliament.
• It was a broad-based tax on all legal documents and licenses.
• The Stamp Act affected almost everyone, particularly lawyers.
• It taxed goods produced within the colonies.

Reaction to the Stamp Act:

• The reaction built on previous grievances and was more forceful than preceding protests.
• James Otis's pamphlet, The Rights of the British Colonies Asserted and Proved, outlined the colonists’ argument against the taxes.
• Otis argued for "No taxation without representation," advocating representation in Parliament or greater self-government.
• The British dismissed the notion, citing virtual representation.
• Colonists knew their representation would be too small to protect their interests and wanted the right to determine their own taxes.

Opposition to the Stamp Act:

• Opponents united in various colonies.
• Patrick Henry drafted the Virginia Stamp Act Resolves, asserting colonists’ right to self-government.
• In Boston, mobs burned customs officers in effigy, tore down a customs house, and nearly destroyed the governor’s mansion.
• Protest groups formed throughout the colonies, calling themselves Sons of Liberty.
• Opposition was so effective that no duty collectors were willing to perform their job.

Repeal of the Stamp Act:

• Parliament repealed the Stamp Act in 1766.
• George III replaced Prime Minister Grenville with Lord Rockingham, who opposed the Stamp Act.
• Rockingham repealed the Stamp Act but linked it to the Declaratory Act, asserting the British government's right to tax and legislate in the colonies.
• The colonists won the battle over the stamp tax, but the war of principles over Parliament's powers in the colonies continued.

The Townshend Acts:

• Charles Townshend, minister of the exchequer, drafted the Townshend Acts.
• The acts taxed goods imported directly from Britain, a first for the colonies.
• Some tax collected was set aside for the payment of tax collectors, impeding colonial assemblies from withholding wages to get their way.
• More vice-admiralty courts and new government offices were created to enforce the Crown’s will.
• The New York legislature was suspended for not complying with a law requiring colonists to supply British troops.
• Writs of assistance were instituted, which were licenses that gave the British the power to search suspected smuggled goods.

Colonial Response

• The colonial response was stronger than previous protests.
• The Massachusetts Assembly sent the Massachusetts Circular Letter to other assemblies, urging them to protest the new measures together.
• The British fueled the protests by ordering assemblies not to discuss the letter.
• Governors dissolved legislatures that discussed the letter, which further infuriated colonists.
• Colonists held numerous rallies and organized boycotts.
• They sought support of “commoners” for the first time.
• Boycotts were effective because they affected British merchants, who then joined the protest.
• Colonial women were essential in replacing British imports with “American” products.
• After two years, Parliament repealed the Townshend Acts.

The Quartering Act of 1765:

• Large numbers of troops were stationed in America.
• Colonists were responsible for feeding and housing the troops.
• Even after the Townshend duties were removed, the soldiers remained, especially in Boston, heightening tensions.
• There were 4,000 men in a city of only 16,000.
• Soldiers competed with colonists for jobs.

The Boston Massacre:

• On March 5, 1770, a mob pelted soldiers with rock-filled snowballs.
• Soldiers fired on the crowd, killing five.
• The ensuing propaganda suggested that the soldiers had shot into a crowd of innocent bystanders.
• John Adams defended the soldiers in court, helping to establish a tradition of fair trials for all.

The Calm, and Then the Storm

• The Boston Massacre caused both sides to de-escalate their rhetoric.
• An uneasy status quo settled for the next two years.
• Colonial newspapers discussed ways to alter the relationship between the mother country and the colonies.
• Very few radicals suggested independence.
• In 1772, the British implemented the Townshend Acts, paying colonial administrators from customs revenues.
• Colonists reacted cautiously, setting up Committees of Correspondence to trade ideas and inform one another of the political mood.
• Mercy Otis Warren and other writers called for revolution.
• John Dickinson's "Letters From a Farmer in Pennsylvania" united colonists against the Townshend Acts.
• The British granted the East India Tea Company a monopoly on the tea trade in the colonies, leading to new taxes.
• The Boston Tea Party resulted in the British responding with the Coercive/Intolerable Acts, closing Boston Harbor, tightening control over the Massachusetts government, and enforcing the Quartering Act.
• The Quebec Act granted greater liberties to Catholics and extended the boundaries of Quebec Territory, impeding westward expansion and causing further dissatisfaction among colonists.

Congress

• The First Continental Congress

The First Continental Congress

• The First Continental Congress convened in late 1774.
• All colonies except Georgia sent delegates.
• Diverse perspectives were represented.
• The goal of the congress was to enumerate American grievances, develop a strategy for addressing grievances, and formulate a colonial position on the relationship between the royal government and colonial governments.
• A list of laws colonists wanted repealed was created.
• It was agreed to impose a boycott on British goods until grievances were addressed.
• The Continental Association was formed, with towns setting up committees of observation to enforce the boycott.
• These committees became de facto governments.
• A limited set of parameters were formulated for acceptable Parliamentary interference in colonial affairs.

Winter of 1774 and Spring of 1775

• Committees of observation expanded powers.
• The committees replaced British-sanctioned assemblies in many colonies.
• They led acts of insubordination, such as collecting taxes, disrupting court sessions, and organizing militias and stockpiling weapons.
• According to John Adams "The Revolution was effected before the war commenced. The Revolution was in the minds and hearts of the people."

The Shot Heard ‘Round the World

• The British Underestimated the Pro-Revolutionary Movement
• Government officials believed violence could be averted by arresting ringleaders and confiscating weapons.
• Troops were dispatched to confiscate weapons in Concord, Massachusetts, in April 1775.
• The troops passed through Lexington, where they confronted a small colonial militia (minutemen).
• A shot was fired, drawing British return fire.
• The Minutemen suffered 18 casualties, with 8 dead.
• The British proceeded to Concord, where they faced a larger militia.
• The militia inflicted numerous casualties and forced the British to retreat.
• The Battle of Concord is referred to as "the shot heard 'round the world."

The Pre-Revolutionary War Era

• Colonists used the time to rally citizens to the cause of independence.
• Loyalists included government officials, devout Anglicans, merchants dependent on trade with England, and religious and ethnic minorities who feared persecution by the rebels.
• Many enslaved people believed their chances for liberty were better with the British than with the colonists.
• An increase in slave insurrections dampened some Southerners' enthusiasm for revolution.
• Patriots were mostly white Protestant property holders and gentry, as well as urban artisans, especially in New England.
• Much of the rest of the population hoped the situation would resolve itself.
• The Quakers of Pennsylvania were pacifists and wanted to avoid war.

The Second Continental Congress

• The Second Continental Congress prepared for war by establishing a Continental Army, printing money, and creating government offices to supervise policy.
• George Washington was chosen to lead the army because he was well-liked and a Southerner.
• John Dickinson and the Olive Branch Petition
• Many delegates followed John Dickinson, who was pushing for reconciliation with Britain using the Olive Branch Petition.
• The Olive Branch Petition was adopted by the Continental Congress on July 5, 1775.
• It was the last-ditch attempt to avoid armed conflict.
• King George III was not interested, as he considered the colonists to be in open rebellion.
• The colonial leaders were trying to reconcile with the mother country one year before the adoption of the Declaration of Independence.

The Declaration of Independence

• Common Sense, published in January 1776 by Thomas Paine, advocated for colonial independence and republicanism over monarchy.
• In the first three months it sold more than 100,000 copies.
• Common Sense, was accessible to colonists who couldn't always understand the Enlightenment-speak of the Founding Fathers
• Common Sense helped swing support to the patriot cause among people who were unsure about attacking the mother country

Success of Common Sense

• Common Sense, was a bigger success than James Otis's The Rights of the British Colonies Asserted and Proved.
• Literacy rates in New England were higher due to the Puritan legacy of teaching children to read the Bible.
• Paine's pamphlet reached a wider audience, including those who couldn't read.
• In today's equivalent, it would be like selling 13 million downloads today.

Role of Propaganda

• Rebels were looking for a masterpiece of propaganda to rally colonists to their cause.
• Common Sense served as this masterpiece and helped swing support to the patriot cause.

Declaration of Independence

• The Congress commissioned the Declaration of Independence in June 1776, written by Thomas Jefferson.
• Enumerated the colonies' grievances against the Crown
• Articulated the principle of individual liberty and government's responsibility to serve the people.
• It remains a powerful document despite its flaws.
• The Declaration of Independence was signed on July 4, 1776.

The Significance of Declaration of Independence

• With the signing of the Declaration, The Revolutionary War became a war for independence..
• The Declaration set out the colonies' complaints against the British government and laid out the philosophical underpinnings of the revolution, noting that all men are created equal and have certain inalienable rights.
• The Declaration has been a seminal document in American history and an inspiration for movements for civil rights and freedom across the world.

The Battle of Yorktown

• The Battle of Yorktown on October 17, 1781 was a symbolic end to the American Revolution.
• Major British general Cornwallis was surrounded by the French navy and George Washington’s troops, and surrendered.
• Following the surrender there was a long period of negotiations between the American colonies and Great Britain, which would finally end the war in October of 1783

Other Facts about the War

• The Continental Army had trouble recruiting good soldiers.
• Congress eventually recruited Black people, and up to 5,000 fought on the side of the rebels.
• The Franco-American Alliance, negotiated by Ben Franklin in 1778, brought the French into the war on the side of the colonists.
• The Treaty of Paris, signed at the end of 1783, granted the United States independence and generous territorial rights.

The Articles of Confederation

• The Articles of Confederation:

Articles of Confederation

• The Continental Congress sent the Articles of Confederation to the colonies for ratification in 1777.
• It was the first national constitution of the United States.
• Intentionally created little to no central government due to fear of creating a tyrannical government.

Limitations of the Articles of Confederation

• The Articles of Confederation gave the federal government no power to raise an army.
• Federal government could not enforce state or individual taxation, or a military draft.
• The Articles of Confederation could not regulate trade among the states or international trade.
• It had no executive or judicial branch.
• The legislative branch gave each state one vote, regardless of the state's population.
• In order to pass a law, 9 of the 13 of the states had to agree.
• In order to amend or change the Articles, unanimous approval was needed.

Impact of the Limitations

• These limitations hurt the colonies during Shays's Rebellion.
• Eventually, the limitations of the Articles of Confederation led to the drafting of the Constitution of the United States.

A New Constitution

• A New Constitution:

By 1787,

• The federal government lacked sufficient authority under the Articles of Confederation.
• Alexander Hamilton was concerned about no uniform commercial policy and fear for the survival of the new republic.

Annapolis Convention

• Hamilton convened the Annapolis Convention.
• Only five delegates showed up.

Constitutional Convention

• Congress consented to a "meeting in Philadelphia" for the sole purpose of revising the Articles of Confederation.
• Delegates from all states except Rhode Island attended the meeting.
• The meeting took place during the long, hot summer of 1787.

Delegates:

• There were 55 delegates.
• All delegates were men.
• All delegates were white.
• Many were wealthy lawyers or landowners.
• Many delegates owned enslaved people.
• The delegates came from different ideological backgrounds.

New Jersey Plan:

• The New Jersey Plan called for modifications to Articles of Confederation.
• Called for equal representation from each state.

Virginia Plan:

• James Madison proposed the Virginia Plan.
• Called for new government based on principle of checks and balances.
• Proposed the number of representatives for each state based on population.

Three-tiered federal government:

• The Three-tiered federal government included an executive branch led by president.
• Included a legislative branch composed of bicameral Congress.
• Included a judicial branch composed of Supreme Court.

Legislative Branch:

• The powers that were expanded as part of the Legislative Branch were to enforce federal taxation.
• To regulate trade between states, regulate international trade.
• To coin and borrow money, create postal service.
• To authorize military draft, declare war.

Presidential Election:

• The president is indirectly chosen by Electoral College.
• College is composed of political leaders representing popular vote of each state.
• To win a state's electoral votes, a candidate must win the majority of popular vote in that state.
• A state's electoral count is sum of senators and representatives (determined by population).
• Gives states with larger populations more power in presidential elections.

Convention:

• The Convention lasted 4 months.
• Delegates hammered out compromises.
• The Great Compromise (Connecticut Compromise) blended NJ and VA plans for bicameral legislature.

Constitution established:

• The House of Representatives is elected by the people.
• The Senate is elected by state legislatures.
• The President and VP are elected by Electoral College.
• There are three branches of government: executive, legislative, judicial.
• Power of checks and balances.

Three-Fifths Compromise:

• There was a method for counting enslaved people in southern states for "proportional" representation in Congress.
• Enslaved people counted as 3/5 of a person.

Signing of the Constitution:

• Only three of 42 remaining delegates refused to sign.
• Two refused because it did not include a bill of rights.

Ratification of Constitution:

• Ratification was not guaranteed.
• Opponents (Anti-Federalists) portrayed the federal government as an all-powerful beast.
• Anti-Federalists came from the backcountry and were particularly appalled by the absence of a bill of rights.
• Their position resonated in state legislatures where the fate of Constitution lay.
• Some held out for promise of immediate addition of Bill of Rights upon ratification.

Federalist Position:

• Federalists forcefully and persuasively argued in Federalist Papers.
• The Federalist Papers were anonymously authored by James Madison, Alexander Hamilton, and John Jay.
• The Federalist Papers were published in New York newspaper and later widely circulated.
• It was critical in swaying opinion in New York, a large and important state.
• Other important states of the era: Virginia, Pennsylvania, Massachusetts

Constitution:

• The Constitution went into effect in 1789.
• The Bill of Rights was added in 1791.

The Washington Presidency

• George Washington as First President:

George Washington as First President:

• Washington was unanimously chosen by Electoral College.
• Washington had not sought the presidency, but was the most popular figure in colonies.
• Accepted role out of sense of obligation

Washington's Presidency:

• Exercised authority with care and restraint
• Used veto only if convinced bill was unconstitutional
• Delegated responsibility, created government of best minds of his time
• Created a cabinet (not specifically granted in Constitution but every president since has had one)
• A cabinet is made up of heads of executive departments, functions as president's chief group of advisors

Cabinet Selections:

• Thomas Jefferson as secretary of state
• Alexander Hamilton as secretary of the treasury
• The two disagreed on proper relationship between federal and state government, with Hamilton favoring a strong central government and weaker state governments.
• Jefferson feared monarchy/tyranny, favored weaker federal government with main powers of defense and international commerce

National Bank Debate:

• Hamilton proposed the National Bank to help regulate and strengthen economy
• Both houses of Congress approved but Washington uncertain of constitutionality
• Debate established two main schools of thought on constitutional law
• Strict constructionists (led by Jefferson and Madison) argued bank not necessary and thus beyond national government's powers
• Hamilton (broad constructionist) argued bank implied power of government and not explicitly forbidden by Constitution
• Washington agreed with Hamilton and signed bill

Hamilton's Treasury:

• Hamilton's tenure in the treasury was busy and successful.
• Handled national debt accrued during war.
• Financial plan called for federal government to assume states' debts, repay by giving debt holders land on western frontier.
• Plan favored northern banks and drew accusations of helping monied elite at expense of working classes.
• Political deal struck to get most of plan implemented, concession was southern location for nation's capital.
• The nation's capital was moved to Washington D.C. in 1800.

French Revolution and Washington Administration:

• It took place during Washington's presidency.
• Caused considerable debate between Jefferson and Hamilton
• Jefferson supported revolution and republican ideals
• Hamilton had aristocratic leanings, disliked revolutionaries
• Issue came to forefront when France and England resumed hostilities

U.S. Neutrality:

• Because the British were the primary trading partner after the war, the U.S. was nudged toward neutrality in French-English conflict.
• Jefferson agreed on neutrality as correct course to follow
• Washington declared U.S. intention to remain "friendly and impartial" (Neutrality Proclamation)
• Genêt's visit sparked rallies by American supporters of the revolution

Origins of Two-Party System:

• Differences between Hamilton and Jefferson
• Federalists (favoring strong federal government)
• Republicans/Democratic-Republicans (followers of Jefferson)
• The development of political parties troubled framers of the Constitution, and were seen as factions dangerous to survival of Republic

Note:

• Federalists who supported ratification of the Constitution are often the same people as Federalists who favored strong federal government.
• The Republican party created in the 1850s is a very different group which still survives today.

Hamilton's Financial Program and Whiskey Rebellion:

• Implemented excise tax on whiskey to raise revenue
• Farmers in western Pennsylvania resisted, instigated Whiskey Rebellion
• Washington dispatched militia to disperse rebels, demonstrated new government's power to respond
• Rebellion highlighted class tensions between inland farmers and coastal elites

Jay's Treaty:

• Negotiated by John Jay to address British evacuation of NW and free trade violations
• The Treaty prevented war with Great Britain, but was considered as too many concessions towards British
• Congress attempted to withhold funding to enforce treaty
• Washington refused to submit documents, establishing precedent of executive privilege
• Considered a low point of Washington's administration

Pinckney's Treaty:

• Negotiated by Thomas Pinckney with Spain, addressing use of Mississippi River, duty-free access to markets, and removal of Spanish forts on American soil
• Spain promised to try to prevent Native American attacks on Western settlers
• Ratified by U.S. Senate in 1796, considered high point of Washington's administration

Washington's Farewell Address:

• Washington declined to run for third term, setting the final precedent
• Composed in part by Alexander Hamilton
• Washington warned future presidents against "permanent alliances with any portion of the foreign world"
• Promoted notion of friendly relationships with all nations, but avoiding permanent alliances
• The warning remained prominent part of American foreign policy through mid-20th century

Republican Motherhood

• General:

General

• During the 1790s, women’s roles in courtship, marriage, and motherhood were reevaluated in light of the new republic and its ideals
• Women were largely excluded from political activity but had an important civil role and responsibility
• Women were to be the teachers and producers of virtuous male citizens

Private Virtue

• Public virtue had been a strictly masculine quality in the past, private virtue emerged as a very important quality for women
• Women were given the task of inspiring and teaching men to be good citizens through romance and motherhood
• Women were to entertain only suitors with good morals, providing more incentive for men to be more ethical

Motherhood

• Women held a tremendous influence on their son
• Advocates for female education spoke out, arguing that educated women would be better mothers, who would produce better citizens
• Even though the obligations of women had grown to include this new political meaning, traditional gender roles were largely unchanged as the education of women was meant only in service to husbands and family

Republican Motherhood

• The idea of Republican Motherhood emerged in the early 1800s
• The role of the mother became more prominent in child-rearing
• Mothers were now expected to raise educated children who would contribute positively to the United States.

The Adams Presidency

• General:

General

• The Electoral College selected John Adams, a Federalist, as Washington’s successor
• Under the then-current rules, the second-place candidate became vice president, so Adams’s vice president was the Democratic-Republican Thomas Jefferson

Washington Era

• Following the Washington Era, Adams’s presidency was bound to be an anticlimax
• Adams, argumentative and elitist, was a difficult man to like
• He was also a hands-off administrator, often allowing Jefferson’s political rival Alexander Hamilton to take charge
• The animosity between Jefferson and Hamilton and the growing belligerence between the Federalists and Democratic-Republicans set the ugly, divisive tone for Adams’s term

France

• Avoidance of all-out war with France was perhaps Adams’s greatest achievement
• After the United States signed the Jay Treaty with Britain, France began seizing American ships on the open seas
• Adams sent three diplomats to Paris, where French officials demanded a huge bribe before they would allow negotiations even to begin
• The diplomats returned home, and Adams published their written report in the newspapers
• Because he deleted the French officials’ names and replaced them with the letters X, Y, and Z, the incident became known as the XYZ Affair
• As a result, popular sentiment did a complete turnaround; formerly pro-French, the public became vehemently anti-French to the point that a declaration of war seemed possible
• Aware of how small the American military was, Adams avoided the war (a war Hamilton wanted) and negotiated a settlement with a contrite France although he was not able to avoid the Naval skirmishes called the Quasi-War

Alien and Sedition Acts

• The low point of Adams’s tenure was the passage and enforcement of the Alien and Sedition Acts
• The acts allowed the government to forcibly expel foreigners and to jail newspaper editors for “scandalous and malicious writing”
• The acts were purely political, aimed at destroying new immigrants’—especially French immigrants’—support for the Democratic-Republicans
• Worst of all, the Sedition Act, which strictly regulated antigovernment speech, was a clear violation of the First Amendment

Opposition to Alien and Sedition Acts

• Vice President Jefferson led the opposition to the Alien and Sedition Acts
• Together with Madison, he drafted the Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions (which were technically anonymous)
• The resolutions argued that the states had the right to judge the constitutionality of federal laws
• The resolutions went on to exercise this authority they claimed, later referred to as nullification, by declaring the Alien and Sedition Acts void
• Virginia and Kentucky, however, never prevented enforcement of the laws
• Rather, Jefferson used the laws and the resolutions as key issues in his 1800 campaign for the presidency
• Even today, states often pass resolutions similar to these to express their displeasure with the federal government.