Settlement Infrastructure Planning SP 262

• The presentation provides information on Settlement Infrastructure Planning, which is course SP 262, taught by Professor J.K. Owusu-Ansah.

Methods of Delivery

• Guest lectures/course tutors will impart knowledge
• Course materials are for reading
• PowerPoint presentations will be part of the course
• There will be field trips
• Report writing emphasizes avoiding plagiarism
• Active participation is encouraged

Assessment Breakdown

• Class attendance and participation will count for 5% of the final grade.
• Two individual assignments contribute 10% to the final grade.
• Group presentations make up 5% of the grade.
• Mid-semester exams are worth 10% of the final grade.
• Continuous assessments account for 30% of the final grade.
• End-of-semester examinations carry the highest weight, at 70%.
• The total assessment is out of 100%.

Learning Outcomes

• Learners should understand the types, nature, and contribution of urban and rural infrastructure to development.
• This includes environmental sustainability, social equity, economic development, and political dimensions.
• Learners should be able to identify key role players in infrastructure provision.
• Learners should demonstrate skills in problem analysis, needs assessment, and implementation.
• Learners should learn the planning aspects related to infrastructure, specifically, the creation of infrastructure plans.
• Apply knowledge gained in planning workshops, involving identifying existing and required infrastructure based on data collection and needs assessments

Unit One: Course Overview

• Settlements
• Infrastructure
• Infrastructure Planning

Settlements: Definition

• Types include urban/rural, city, village, town, hamlet, base, or camp.
• Settlements can be temporary or permanent.
• They can be dispersed or nucleated, with dispersed settlements having higher population density and a more concentrated grouping of structures.
• Settlements vary in size, complexity, and functions.
• Settlements are networked; each settlement is considered a NODE within the network of complex settlements.
• Metropolitan areas, cities, towns, villages, and hamlets exist within this network.
• Settlements serve as centers of human interaction, offering living space, administration, economic activities, social services, political systems, and environmental systems.
• Settlements have functions like ports, market towns, resorts, mining, and serving as institutions.
• Human interaction is facilitated by complex, interconnected, interdependent subsystems of infrastructure.

Factors Influencing Settlement choice

• Water supply
• Defense
• Quality of soil for agriculture and construction
• Building materials
• Weather conditions

Infrastructure: Definition

• Infrastructure, with "Infra" meaning below, includes systems embedded in the ground, such as water and natural gas supply systems.
• Includes systems embedded in the ground, on and above the earth's surface within settlements and between settlements.
• Systems in space, such as communication infrastructure, are also included.
• General definition: The underlying foundation or framework (systems of public works and services) that enable an organization, city or country function properly

Infrastructure Systems

• Buried underground
• Embedded on the earth's surface
• Hanging overhead
• In space (communications and networking infrastructure, energy grid lines)
• Driven by software

Things to Discuss About Infrastructure

• Definitions
• Types of infrastructure
• Attributes of infrastructure
• Availability, access, adequacy, performance of infrastructure
• The spatial distribution of Ghana's infrastructure
• Contributions of infrastructure to development and to the attainment of the SGDS
• Negative impacts of infrastructure
• The role of the government/private sector in infrastructure planning, funding, maintenance and delivery

Types of Infrastructure

• Hard/physical infrastructure
• Networked infrastructure
• Economic
• Soft infrastructure
• Social infrastructure/services
• Institutional infrastructure
• Green infrastructure
• Critical infrastructure

Hard Infrastructure

• Engineered capital intensive physical structures, equipment and facilities that could be georeferenced.
• Transportation facilitates mass movement of people and goods (rail, water, roads...).
• Information and Communication Technology
• Water supply systems (production, transmission, and distribution)
• Energy (production, transmission and distribution)

Networked Infrastructure

• Complex, interconnected, dynamic systems of sites, facilities, systems, and people are necessary for the daily function of a country.
• Facilitates the flow, movement, exchange, and distribution of goods and services.
• Connections bind spaces within settlements, across nations, and internationally.
• Networked infrastructure has economies of scale.
• Examples include Telecommunication (physical, software, satellite systems, underground cables, telephone masts), phones & internet for transmission of electronic signals and digital signs, Water reticulation systems, Roads, Transit systems and their terminals, Pedestrian walkways & cycle lanes, and Canals, tunnels, ferries, airports and ports.

Soft Infrastructure

• Intangible, invisible and not easily measured in quantitative terms
• Services provided by institutions
• Rules and regulations providing competitive framework for investments
• Ensures property rights, security, efficient financial market, transparency and accountability
• The benefits only show up in the long run

Institutional Infrastructure

• All customary and established rules of the community as well as the facilities and procedures for guaranteeing and implementing rules provided by the state.
• Regulations, Parliament, Administrative authorities, the Courts, DOVVSU, EOCO
• Revenue collection agencies
• National and internal security
• Research institutions
• Banking system (maintenance of the value of money)

Social Infrastructure/Services

• An activity, work, or space/facility undertaken or provided for, or on behalf of the residents of a municipality.
• Population related services and support structures
• Services have a direct and immediate effect on the quality of lives through healthy and safe living environments.
• Administration is an activity, work, or facility undertaken/provided for or on behalf of the residents of a municipality.
• Environmental Services includes health services, aging infrastructure, water supply, waste management, and street lighting
• Social welfare and protection programs such as child care, youth facilities, and aged care
• Protective services like policing and emergency response (ambulances and fire)
• Others: Lorry parks, Libraries, and Tourism
• Cultual infrastructure: Artifact storage/preservation (museums), rehearsal/performance facilities (concert halls, opera houses), and exhibition/galleries (Art/heritage).

Green Infrastructure

• Strategically planned network of natural and semi-natural areas designed and managed to deliver a wide range of ecosystem services in terrestrial, aquatic, coastal, marine environments.
• Encompasses botanical gardens, arboretums (gardens for scientific purposes), parks, forests, woodlands, riparian corridors, reservoirs, and lakes.
• includes floodplain-adapted agricultural management, and landscaping
• Benefits of Green infrastructure
• Networks of varied greenspaces provide positive image and enhances quality of life of residents
• Strengthening the functionality of ecosystems for delivering goods and services
• Supports supporting, protection and preservation of biodiversity
• Provides flood regulation, water retention, and promotes water infiltration
• Climate Mitigation: Providing shade and carbon sequestration, and air filtration The future?

Critical Infrastructure

• Facilities and systems provide essential environmental protection, control, and health and safety that could cause devastating loss if attacked or might adversely affect the nation's morale.
• Examples: - Nuclear reactors, materials, and waste - Water and wastewater systems - Energy systems - Chemical production and storage - National monuments

Ghana's Infrastructure Plan (NDPC, 2019)

• Energy Infrastructure
• Transport Infrastructure
• Water and Sanitation
• Human Settlement and Housing
• Information and Communications Technology
• Social, Civic and Commercial Infrastructure
• Institutional Development Framework
• Integrated Waste Management
• Financing the Ghana Infrastructure Plan

Transportation Infrastructure in Ghana

• Developing a new international aerotropolis at Prampram under public-private partnership to complement increasing traffic at Kotoka International Airport.
• Developing a new Kumasi Airport and related services at Ankaase.
• Regulating land developments near airports to stimulate investments in airport related service industries.
• Linking underground sub-urban railway line from Adenta to Accra Central to Kotoka Intl. Airport, and the emerging airport-city related service industries.
• Attaining International Aviation Safety Assessment Category 1 status for aviation safety.
• Enhancing interconnectivity between the country's airports
• Maritime: Develop the Boankra Inland Port to reduce pressure at Tema Port and trigger an increase in transit trade to landlocked countries
• The Direct railway link will be constructed from Tema Port to the Boankra Inland Port
• Redevelop the Tema Shipyard and Drydock Facility into a world class facility, to serve growing oil industries
• Marine fishing ports and landing sites would be developed in several coastal fishing communities

Attributes of Infrastructure

• Complex, multiple, interdependent systems and connected systems (bundle of infrastructure)
• Durable yet fragile
• Some are hidden (embedded) while others ever present
• Social overhead capital (sunk capital; heavy initial capital investments)
• Inflexibility, fixed to the locations
• Longevity, lasts for generations
• Non-substitutability, high costs to substitute
• Non-excludability of user, accessible to all
• Systems built to contain and block movements (like international borders, dams)
• Large scale, fixed, bulky and involves lump-sum with long (or no) payback periods
• Output mostly paid for in local currency (less true for ports and airports)
• Infrastructure has spillover effects to users and non users
• Infrastructure provision is naturally monopolistic and mostly carried out by a single state provider
• The assets are so critical not to be entrusted to the privare sector
• Public interest/social equity, non-commercial goals (providing accessibility to poor and rural areas)
• Address collective action and goals
• Large capital intensive overhead costs
• Address negative spillovers (require government intervention)
• Infrastructure networks work in harmony with each other
• What is the internet without electricity?
• What are a corporate office without the data and information systems?
• A shopping mall without electricity, security or logistics or institutions enforcing rules and regulations

Benefits of Infrastructure Provision (Roads)

• Reduces travel time
• Reduces costs of production, distribution leading to improved business efficiency, innovation, competition and trade, support agglomerations of economic activity
• Facilitate a mobile and flexible labor force
• Lubricates the wheels of trade (providing access to markets)
• Allow the benefits of economic gains to be distributed across space
• Links work/schools and leisure
• Facilitates labor mobility (surplus labor to move to places where labor is in short supply
• Provides access to education makes individuals more aware of potential risks to their own health and that of their family members
• Improved health and life expectancy

Multiplier Effect of Infrastructure

• Promotes other activities (agriculture, health, education, forestry, fisheries, small-scale industries, trade, commerce)
• Reduces the cost of transportation and production
• Enhances geographic access to productive opportunities and markets
• Facilitates spatial interactions, exchange and distribution of goods and services and therefore lowers costs of production (Intra-city, Inter-city, intra-region and inter-region)
• Facilitates increased productivity, trade, investment and employment
• Reduces the costs of doing business
• Creates multiplier effects throughout the economy generating lasting economic, social and environmental benefits
• Creates competitive and attractive environments for investments and livability
• Facilitates greater physical access to markets, education, health, and other social services
• Provides better access to services for the poor has a significant impact on their health through infrastructure

Infrastructure's contribution to poverty reduction

• Reduces the incidence of waterborne diseases and mortality rates.
• Frees time to attend school, enhancing enrolment and retention of girls, and enhances women's dignity.
• Improves health, nutrition and food production.
• Promotes productive economic activities.
• Reduction of unproductive time spent in meeting one's energy needs
• Enhances light for homework and for domestic activities & improves the local environment
• Infrastructure in rural areas is key to stimulating agricultural transformation and growth
• Higher agricultural incomes induce a rise in demand for goods and services produced in other sectors and also for farmers and farm workers
• Agricultural provides input, promotes processing, distribution and generates multiplier effects beyond agriculture

The role of government in Infrastructure Provision

• Formulating policies for infrastructure delivery and management, including regulations, design principles and standards, Legal framework to support private involvement by the private sector, regulatory frameworks to safeguard the interest of the poor & Requiring governments regulations (in case of PPPs)
• Identifying and planning infrastructure and resource requirements
• Funding Infrastructure generally involve the production of public goods by government rather than private sector or is heavily subsidized,
• International institutions
• Controlled, supervised, monitored and regulated by government

Political dimensions of Infrastructure Provision

• It is largely a public function, carried out by public agencies and public officials
• Decision making largely political and involves a deliberative process with deep public engagement
• Professional experts are able to inform on debate by providing insights into what is feasible and involves the trade-offs of different investment alternatives
• Experts answer what can be built but cannot circumvent the political nature of allocating scarce investment resources
• Infrastructure provision involves negotiating questions of the scarcity, pollution, depletion, fair distribution, and subsequent disposal of public funds
• Infrastructure provides a political tool, with political elections often leveraged to win votes, awarding or punishing the electorate
• Infrastructure serve to assert state sovereignty, incorporating indigenous populations into the mainstream national societies

Negative Impacts of Infrastructure

• Damage to the ecosystems and animal habitat
• Emissions from fossil fuel energy generation and transportation contribute to acid rain and global warming.
• Road construction can lead to erosion and pollution
• Infrastructure expose to flooding and cause disruption
• Irrigation works can lead to overuse of water, land degradation, and downstream pollution

Key Actors in Infrastructure Planning

• Governments
• Development agencies
• Private sector
• Local communities

Infrastructure Planning:

• Addresses the gaps in order to meet current and future growth needs
• Must be a component of local plans
• Problem ID, Observation, field surveys, field audits, Focus Group Discussions, Interview

Planning Overview

• Analysis (trends, proportions, patterns, facts/perceptions, implications for development)
• Formulation of Goals and Objectives
• Problems, Opportunities and Constraints, Challenges (POCC analyses)
• Generation of Alternative Courses of Action
• Testing and Choice
• Implementation of Preferred Option (Role casting, budgeting, phasing)
• Monitoring and evaluation
• Feedback and re-planning

Needs Assessment:

• Needs are not wish lists, meets economic, social, and environmental objectives

• An overall description of the system (location, physical description, capacity, performance etc.)

• Highlighting the contributions of each facility to settlement growth

• Avoiding over-estimating far in excess of available resources

• Identifying roles of various actors in terms of funding, maintenance

• Guided by government policies and planning standards

• Nationnal infrastructure plan (2019 Download)

• Estimating Demand: Inventory of existing facilities and Projections

• Inventory of existing facilities can be hard to get in numbers

  • Parks
  • Recreational facilities
  • Bridges connecting farms and communities
  • Cemeteries

• It should phase out outdated facilities based on age, safety and structural integrity and performance

• Analyze Spatial distribution to determine physical accessibility and Space requirement for economic activities

• Who are the users?

• It must be designed to provide a specific level of service, generally measured in units per time.

• What is their capacity to meet demand

• Capacity - What about reliability

• Population Analyses, total number of existing residents - Who are the Users - Consideration of new residents (especially in peri-urban areas - Consider Visitors - Market Centers - Sub-Groups - Periods of scarcity plus climatic conditions=peak demand