Separation Techniques and Changes in Matter

Filtration: Separates solids from liquids using a porous barrier.
Distillation: Separates components based on differences in boiling points; involves evaporation and condensation.
Chromatography: Separates mixtures based on differential adsorption to a stationary phase.
Centrifugation: Uses centrifugal force to separate components based on density.
Sublimation: Transforms solid directly to gas, separating from non-sublimable substances.

Physical Changes:
- Do not alter the chemical composition.
- Examples: melting, freezing, dissolving, and crushing.
Chemical Changes:
- Involve a transformation into a different substance.
- Indicated by color change, gas production, or formation of a precipitate.
- Examples: rusting, burning, and digestion.

Exothermic Reactions:
- Release energy, usually in the form of heat.
- Examples: combustion, respiration.
Endothermic Reactions:
- Absorb energy from the surroundings.
- Examples: photosynthesis, melting of ice.

Solid: Definite shape and volume; particles closely packed and vibrate in fixed positions.
Liquid: Definite volume but takes the shape of the container; particles are close but can move past one another.
Gas: No definite shape or volume; particles are far apart and move freely.
Plasma: Ionized gas with free electrons; conducts electricity and responds to magnetic fields.

Pure Substances: Consist of a single type of particle; can be elements or compounds.
Mixtures: Combinations of two or more substances that retain their individual properties; can be homogeneous (uniform) or heterogeneous (non-uniform).

Physical Properties: Characteristics observed without changing the substance's identity. Examples: color, density, melting point, boiling point.
Chemical Properties: Characteristics that determine how a substance reacts with others. Examples: flammability, reactivity, acidity.

Colloids: Mixtures with particles that are intermediate in size between those of solutions and suspensions; exhibit the Tyndall effect. Examples: milk, fog.
Alloys: Mixtures of metals or a metal with non-metals, designed to have enhanced properties. Examples: steel (iron and carbon), bronze (copper and tin).

John Dalton: Proposed the atomic theory; atoms are indivisible and combine in whole-number ratios.
J.J. Thomson: Discovered the electron; proposed the "plum pudding" model of the atom.
Ernest Rutherford: Conducted the gold foil experiment; proposed a dense, positively charged nucleus surrounded by electrons.
Niels Bohr: Developed the Bohr model; electrons orbit the nucleus at fixed distances.
Erwin Schrödinger: Introduced quantum mechanics; developed the wave model of the atom, depicting electron clouds.

Filtration: Efficiently separates solid particles from liquids through a porous material.
Distillation: Capitalizes on boiling point differences to purify liquids, involving steps of evaporation followed by condensation.
Chromatography: Employs stationary phases to differentiate and separate components in a mixture based on their adsorption rates.
Centrifugation: Utilizes centrifugal force to separate components by their density, often used for blood and cellular components.
Sublimation: Allows a solid to transform directly into gas, effectively separating it from non-sublimable materials.

Physical Changes:
- Characteristics of the substance remain unchanged; examples include melting, freezing, and dissolving.
Chemical Changes:
- Result in a different substance; indicated by observable factors such as color changes, gas formation, or precipitate formation; include processes like rusting and combustion.

Exothermic Reactions:
- Characterized by the release of energy, primarily heat; examples include combustion and cellular respiration.
Endothermic Reactions:
- Require energy input from the surroundings to proceed; examples are photosynthesis and the melting of ice.

Solid: Exhibits a fixed shape and volume; particles are densely packed and vibrate within fixed positions.
Liquid: Maintains a definite volume but adopts the shape of its container; particles are closely arranged yet able to flow.
Gas: Lacks a definite shape and volume; particles are widely spaced and have significant freedom of movement.
Plasma: Composed of ionized gases with free-flowing electrons; characterized by conductivity and responsiveness to magnetic fields.

Pure Substances: Consist of a single particle type, categorized as elements or compounds.
Mixtures: Comprise two or more substances that retain distinct properties, classified as either homogeneous (uniform) or heterogeneous (non-uniform).

Physical Properties: Observable traits, such as color, density, and phase transitions, that do not affect the identity of the substance.
Chemical Properties: Traits that describe the substance's potential reactions with other materials, including flammability and acidity.

Melting: The transition from solid to liquid state.
Freezing: The reverse process, where a liquid becomes a solid.
Vaporization: Transformation of liquid to gas; includes both boiling and evaporation.
Condensation: The process through which a gas becomes a liquid.
Sublimation: Direct change from solid to gas, bypassing the liquid phase.
Deposition: Conversion of gas directly into solid, also skipping the liquid state.

Colloids: Mixtures with particle sizes between solutions and suspensions, displaying the Tyndall effect; examples include milk and fog.
Alloys: Engineered mixtures of metals or non-metals to enhance properties; notable examples include steel (iron and carbon) and bronze (copper and tin).

John Dalton: Introduced atomic theory, emphasizing that atoms are indivisible and combine in whole-number ratios.
J.J. Thomson: Discovered electrons and proposed the "plum pudding" model illustrating embedded electrons.
Ernest Rutherford: Conducted the gold foil experiment, revealing a dense nucleus surrounded by electrons.
Niels Bohr: Developed a model where electrons orbit the nucleus at set distances, introducing quantized energy levels.
Erwin Schrödinger: Pioneered quantum mechanics with the wave model, depicting electrons as cloud-like distributions around the nucleus.