Podcast
Questions and Answers
Where are exteroceptors primarily located?
Where are exteroceptors primarily located?
Which type of receptor is responsible for sensing pain?
Which type of receptor is responsible for sensing pain?
What do proprioceptors primarily provide information about?
What do proprioceptors primarily provide information about?
Which receptor type is responsible for detecting changes in temperature?
Which receptor type is responsible for detecting changes in temperature?
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What characterizes a tonic receptor?
What characterizes a tonic receptor?
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Which of the following describes adaptation in sensory receptors?
Which of the following describes adaptation in sensory receptors?
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Which type of receptor detects mechanical stimuli?
Which type of receptor detects mechanical stimuli?
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Which of the following best describes phasic receptors?
Which of the following best describes phasic receptors?
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What is the primary function of sensory receptors in the body?
What is the primary function of sensory receptors in the body?
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Which of the following describes perception?
Which of the following describes perception?
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What differentiates the general senses from special senses?
What differentiates the general senses from special senses?
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Which sensation is NOT typically detected by a single receptor?
Which sensation is NOT typically detected by a single receptor?
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Proprioceptive sensations provide information regarding which aspects of the body?
Proprioceptive sensations provide information regarding which aspects of the body?
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Which statement is true regarding the types of sensations?
Which statement is true regarding the types of sensations?
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Which of the following is categorized under somatic sensory modalities?
Which of the following is categorized under somatic sensory modalities?
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What happens when sensory impulses reach the cerebral cortex?
What happens when sensory impulses reach the cerebral cortex?
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What is a primary reason why we cannot tickle ourselves?
What is a primary reason why we cannot tickle ourselves?
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Which type of sensation is most commonly reported by amputees experiencing phantom limb sensations?
Which type of sensation is most commonly reported by amputees experiencing phantom limb sensations?
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What mediates the tickle response according to the content?
What mediates the tickle response according to the content?
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What phenomenon occurs in the brain regarding the sensation of a missing limb?
What phenomenon occurs in the brain regarding the sensation of a missing limb?
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What temperature range activates cold receptors?
What temperature range activates cold receptors?
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Which type of receptors is less abundant in the skin?
Which type of receptors is less abundant in the skin?
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Phantom limb pain is often described as:
Phantom limb pain is often described as:
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What can be said about the cold receptors' location?
What can be said about the cold receptors' location?
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Which structure is NOT involved in indirect motor circuits?
Which structure is NOT involved in indirect motor circuits?
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What type of movements does the rubrospinal tract primarily control?
What type of movements does the rubrospinal tract primarily control?
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Which of the following tracts is responsible for regulating muscle tone to maintain balance?
Which of the following tracts is responsible for regulating muscle tone to maintain balance?
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What is the primary function of the medial reticulospinal tract?
What is the primary function of the medial reticulospinal tract?
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The indirect motor pathways primarily involve which of the following types of circuits?
The indirect motor pathways primarily involve which of the following types of circuits?
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Lower motor pathway neurons rely on signals from which type of neurons?
Lower motor pathway neurons rely on signals from which type of neurons?
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The tectospinal tract primarily aids in movements of which body parts in response to visual stimuli?
The tectospinal tract primarily aids in movements of which body parts in response to visual stimuli?
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Which of the following is NOT a function associated with the integrative functions of the cerebrum?
Which of the following is NOT a function associated with the integrative functions of the cerebrum?
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What is the result of sodium ions moving into the postsynaptic cell?
What is the result of sodium ions moving into the postsynaptic cell?
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What characterizes an excitatory post-synaptic potential (EPSP)?
What characterizes an excitatory post-synaptic potential (EPSP)?
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What initiates an action potential in the postsynaptic neuron?
What initiates an action potential in the postsynaptic neuron?
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Which neurotransmitter is considered excitatory at nerve-skeletal muscle synapses?
Which neurotransmitter is considered excitatory at nerve-skeletal muscle synapses?
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How do inhibitory neurotransmitters affect the postsynaptic cell?
How do inhibitory neurotransmitters affect the postsynaptic cell?
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What role do synaptic vesicles play during synaptic transmission?
What role do synaptic vesicles play during synaptic transmission?
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What occurs after neurotransmitters bind to receptor proteins on the postsynaptic membrane?
What occurs after neurotransmitters bind to receptor proteins on the postsynaptic membrane?
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What happens during exocytosis of neurotransmitters?
What happens during exocytosis of neurotransmitters?
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What is the role of multiple pre-synaptic inputs in generating an action potential?
What is the role of multiple pre-synaptic inputs in generating an action potential?
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How does nicotine affect synaptic function?
How does nicotine affect synaptic function?
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What effect does curare have on synaptic transmission?
What effect does curare have on synaptic transmission?
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What is the mechanism of action of cocaine on synaptic transmission?
What is the mechanism of action of cocaine on synaptic transmission?
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What impact does myasthenia gravis have on neurotransmission?
What impact does myasthenia gravis have on neurotransmission?
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Graves disease is characterized by which of the following?
Graves disease is characterized by which of the following?
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Which neurotransmitter does morphine primarily act on?
Which neurotransmitter does morphine primarily act on?
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What does the action of nerve gas, such as sarin, typically interfere with?
What does the action of nerve gas, such as sarin, typically interfere with?
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Study Notes
Synapse
- Synapse is the point of connection between a nerve cell and another cell
- It's a specialized junction for nerve cell (neuron) communication with target cells
- Target cells can be nerves, muscles, or glands
Types of Synapses
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Electrical Synapses: Found in vertebrates, relatively rare
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Membranes of the two cells are in close contact
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Enable rapid and reliable transmission of nerve impulses (action potentials)
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Chemical Synapses: More complex
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Presynaptic and postsynaptic cells are separated by a gap (synaptic cleft)
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Prevents simple electrical transmission of action potentials
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Transmission is accomplished by neurotransmitters
Neurotransmitter Action
- Presynaptic nerve terminal cytoplasm is packed with synaptic vesicles holding neurotransmitters
- When an action potential arrives, it stimulates voltage-gated calcium channels opening in the terminal membrane
- Calcium ions flood the cell and trigger synaptic vesicles to release their contents into the synaptic cleft
- Released neurotransmitters diffuse across the cleft to interact with specialized protein receptors on the postsynaptic membrane
- Neurotransmitter binding produces a change in the receptor's shape, opening an intrinsic ion channel
- At nerve-muscle synapses and some nerve-nerve synapses, receptors act as ion channels.
Synaptic Transmission Steps
- Step 1: Action potential reaches axon bulb, opens calcium channels, and calcium flows in
- Step 2: Calcium inflow triggers synaptic vesicles to move toward and fuse with the presynaptic membrane
- Step 3: Neurotransmitters are released into the synaptic cleft through exocytosis
- Step 4: Released neurotransmitters travel across the synaptic cleft and attach to receptors on the postsynaptic membrane
- Step 5: Neurotransmitter binding causes ion channels to open and depolarize/hyperpolarize the postsynaptic membrane
- Step 6: Enzymes break down or reabsorb the neurotransmitters to prevent prolonged stimulation/inhibition.
Seven Processes in Neurotransmitter Action
- Neurotransmitter synthesis from precursors enzymes
- Storage of neurotransmitters in vesicles
- Leakage of neurotransmitter from vesicles (destroyed by enzymes)
- Vesicle fusion with presynaptic membrane; release of neurotransmitter into synapse
- Neurotransmitter binding with auto receptors (inhibits release) and postsynaptic receptors
- Neurotransmitter deactivation either via reuptake or enzymatic degradation
Not All Synaptic Transmission is Excitatory
- Some neurotransmitters act as inhibitory transmitters, making the postsynaptic cell less excitable and less likely to generate an action potential.
- Often act on receptors that function as channels for chloride or potassium ions, typically hyperpolarizing the postsynaptic cell.
Excitatory and Inhibitory Neurotransmitter Actions
- EPSP (Excitatory Postsynaptic Potential): Action potential arriving at the presynaptic terminal results in a flood of positively charged sodium ions into the postsynaptic cell, making the membrane potential less negative.
- IPSP (Inhibitory Postsynaptic Potential): Neurotransmitters bind to receptors acting as channels for chloride or potassium ions, making the membrane potential more negative.
Details of a Synapse
- Diagram of the pre-synaptic terminal, synaptic cleft, synaptic vesicle, post-synaptic element and related components.
Nerve Communication
- Illustration of neurotransmitters being released into the synaptic cleft, degraded, and reuptaken.
Synaptic Transmission
- Detailed step-by-step description illustrating the process.
Types of Neurotransmitters
- Table classifying neurotransmitters with their type and function/effect, with examples.
Neural Circuits
- Neural circuits, both anatomical and functional, for example the myotatic reflex (knee-jerk reflex).
- The sensory and motor components for this specific circuit
Divergence and Convergence
- Divergence is the spread of information from one neuron to several other neurons; e.g., visual input
- Convergence is the synapsing of several neurons on a single neuron; e.g. coordinating multiple stimuli to create a single response
Serial Processing
- Information relayed in a stepwise fashion from one neuron or neuronal pool to the next.
- Example: sensory information being relayed from one part of the brain to another
- Serial processing is vital for sending data from one area of the brain to another
Parallel Processing
- Several neurons or neuronal pools process the same information simultaneously
Neural Circuit Types
- Includes descriptions of sensory and motor pathways, integration, wakefulness and sleep, learning and memory
Levels and Pathways of Sensation
- Overview of pathways for conveying sensations from the body to the brain.
Sensation
- Conscious or unconscious awareness of internal or external stimuli
- Sensations differ depending on receptor stimulation and the destination of impulses in CNS
Perception
- The conscious awareness and interpretation of a sensation
- Includes localization and identification of the sensation, and storage of memories for later use.
Sensory Modalities
- Properties of sensory modalities
- Different types of sensory modalities like touch, pain, temperature, vibration, hearing, vision and special senses.
Receptors
- Structural classification of sensory receptors (free nerve endings, encapsulated nerve endings and separate cells),
- Type of stimuli detected by types of sensory receptors (e.g., mechanoreceptors detect physical or mechanical stress, chemoreceptors detect specific chemicals).
Touch
- Types of touch and receptors involved:
- Crude touch
- Discriminative touch
Receptors
- Specific types of sensory receptors in skin: Meissner corpuscles, hair root plexuses, Merkel discs, Ruffini corpuscles.
Sensory Receptor Structures and Types
- General sensory receptors and special sensory receptors, along with examples of their structures and locations
Generator Potentials
- Generator potential is a type of graded potential, produced by free nerve endings, encapsulated nerve endings and olfactory receptors
- Conversion of stimulus energy into electrical energy
Receptor Potential
- Type of graded potential, produced by sensory receptors of vision, hearing, equilibrium or taste.
- Generation converts stimulus energy into electrical energy for transmission of stimuli in the peripheral nervous systems.
Types of Sensory Receptors
- Exteroceptors, interoceptors, proprioceptors. (Example placement on body for each type).
Adaptation
- Most sensory receptors exhibit adaptation—the tendency for the generator/receptor potential to decrease in amplitude during a maintained constant stimulus.
- Some receptors adapt quickly, while others adapt slowly.
Tonic Receptors and Phasic Receptors
- Tonic receptors adapt slowly and continuously, while Phasic receptors adapt rapidly and stop responding to ongoing constant stimuli, but can detect changes in stimulus intensity or rate.
Pain
- Fast and Slow pain; locations within the body and how their sensory signals ascend through associated tracts of the nervous system.
- How different types of stimuli lead to pain mechanisms are differentiated within the body
Visceral pain
- Description; differences with somatic pain; examples.
Pain Threshold and Tolerance
- Pain threshold
- Pain Tolerance; e.g., how much pain a person can endure.
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Description
Test your knowledge about sensory receptors, including exteroceptors, proprioceptors, and various receptor types responsible for detecting sensations such as pain and temperature. This quiz delves into the functions and characteristics of sensory receptors in the human body.
