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Questions and Answers
What characterizes allodynia?
What characterizes allodynia?
Which of the following describes secondary hyperalgesia?
Which of the following describes secondary hyperalgesia?
What is a primary focus of cognitive rehabilitation therapy?
What is a primary focus of cognitive rehabilitation therapy?
What is a common misconception about younger adults' ability to forecast older adults' experiences?
What is a common misconception about younger adults' ability to forecast older adults' experiences?
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Which of the following is a consequence of normal brain aging?
Which of the following is a consequence of normal brain aging?
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What is the primary consequence of damage to the dorsolateral prefrontal association cortex (DlPFC)?
What is the primary consequence of damage to the dorsolateral prefrontal association cortex (DlPFC)?
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What is the defining behavior of mirror neurons?
What is the defining behavior of mirror neurons?
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How does damage to the secondary motor cortices affect movement?
How does damage to the secondary motor cortices affect movement?
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Which function is primarily associated with the cerebellum?
Which function is primarily associated with the cerebellum?
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Which symptom is NOT commonly associated with apraxia?
Which symptom is NOT commonly associated with apraxia?
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What functional area of the brain is critical for the organization of the primary motor cortex (M1)?
What functional area of the brain is critical for the organization of the primary motor cortex (M1)?
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Which of the following is a consequence of damage in the primary motor cortex?
Which of the following is a consequence of damage in the primary motor cortex?
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What is iPlasticity primarily defined as?
What is iPlasticity primarily defined as?
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Which type of substances are noted to induce juvenile-like plasticity in adults?
Which type of substances are noted to induce juvenile-like plasticity in adults?
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How do psychedelics like psilocybin and ketamine promote neuroplasticity?
How do psychedelics like psilocybin and ketamine promote neuroplasticity?
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What is the primary function of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF)?
What is the primary function of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF)?
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What phenomenon explains why combining antidepressant treatment with therapy can be more effective?
What phenomenon explains why combining antidepressant treatment with therapy can be more effective?
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What role does the mesolimbic dopamine pathway play in addiction?
What role does the mesolimbic dopamine pathway play in addiction?
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How do addictive substances affect the mesolimbic dopamine pathway?
How do addictive substances affect the mesolimbic dopamine pathway?
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What does activity-dependent plasticity refer to in the context of iPlasticity?
What does activity-dependent plasticity refer to in the context of iPlasticity?
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Which of the following methods can enhance neuroplasticity?
Which of the following methods can enhance neuroplasticity?
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Which brain regions are primarily involved in the executive circuit associated with ADHD?
Which brain regions are primarily involved in the executive circuit associated with ADHD?
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What functions are primarily linked to executive functions?
What functions are primarily linked to executive functions?
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What is the major characteristic of ADHD related to dopamine?
What is the major characteristic of ADHD related to dopamine?
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What behavioral symptoms are associated with orbitofrontal circuit dysfunction?
What behavioral symptoms are associated with orbitofrontal circuit dysfunction?
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Which of the following characteristics are associated with dorsolateral circuit dysfunction?
Which of the following characteristics are associated with dorsolateral circuit dysfunction?
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Which principle of neuroplasticity focuses on the differences in brain adaptability at varying ages?
Which principle of neuroplasticity focuses on the differences in brain adaptability at varying ages?
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Which of the following is NOT a function typically associated with executive functioning?
Which of the following is NOT a function typically associated with executive functioning?
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Which symptom is not typically associated with ADHD?
Which symptom is not typically associated with ADHD?
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What is a major neurobiological feature of ADHD related to the prefrontal cortex?
What is a major neurobiological feature of ADHD related to the prefrontal cortex?
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What type of pain is neuropathic pain characterized as?
What type of pain is neuropathic pain characterized as?
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How does ADHD often vary between genders in terms of diagnosis?
How does ADHD often vary between genders in terms of diagnosis?
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What is the main focus of the reward circuit in relation to ADHD?
What is the main focus of the reward circuit in relation to ADHD?
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What is one potential outcome of major frontal lobe damage?
What is one potential outcome of major frontal lobe damage?
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Which of the following changes is associated with neuroplasticity?
Which of the following changes is associated with neuroplasticity?
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Which two neurotransmitter systems are primarily targeted in the treatment of ADHD?
Which two neurotransmitter systems are primarily targeted in the treatment of ADHD?
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Which of the following statements about ADHD symptoms is correct?
Which of the following statements about ADHD symptoms is correct?
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What is one potential manifestation of neuropathic pain?
What is one potential manifestation of neuropathic pain?
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Which statement about the development of the prefrontal cortex in ADHD is true?
Which statement about the development of the prefrontal cortex in ADHD is true?
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What describes the 'utilization actions' in individuals with frontal lobe damage?
What describes the 'utilization actions' in individuals with frontal lobe damage?
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What behavior is indicative of perseveration in individuals with dorsolateral circuit dysfunction?
What behavior is indicative of perseveration in individuals with dorsolateral circuit dysfunction?
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Study Notes
Sensorimotor System
- The sensorimotor system controls motor output, flowing from higher to lower levels, processing sensorimotor programs with real-time feedback.
- Higher levels (e.g., association cortex) plan and design movements.
- Lower levels (e.g., spinal motor circuits) execute the movement.
- Parallel processing is done by the basal ganglia and cerebellum to manage timing and sequence.
- Association cortex ("chop the onion") plans initial movement, secondary motor cortex refines the movement design, and primary motor cortex executes the specific motor sequence.
- Brainstem motor nuclei and spinal motor circuits are involved in the final execution of the movement.
Brain Changes with Movement Practice
- Movement sequences are grouped as units instead of individual parts (response chunking).
- Learning complex skills (e.g., typing) involves memorizing words, rather than individual letters.
- Shifting control to lower levels frees up higher-level cognitive functions.
- Motor equivalence means multiple ways to perform the same task.
Posterior Parietal Association Cortex (PPC)
- Integrates information about body position and external objects.
- Damage leads to contralateral neglect (e.g., neglecting the left side of space), deficits in language (left hemisphere damage) or apraxia(issues with movement).
- Damage in PPC causes issues with initiating movements, not weakness or coordination issues.
Dorsolateral Prefrontal Association Cortex (DPFC)
- Involved in executive functions: evaluation, problem-solving, working memory, learning.
- Damage leads to impaired decision-making, problem-solving, and working memory.
Mirror Neurons
- Activated during both performing and observing a motor action.
- Related to empathy and understanding others.
- Located in ventral premotor cortex and inferior parietal lobule.
Primary Motor Cortex (M1)
- Organization of different body parts in a specific order.
- Damage causes deficits in moving specific body parts independently.
- Other impairments include reduced speed, accuracy, and strength of movement and asterognosis (identification of objects by touch).
Cerebellum
- Receives input from primary and secondary motor cortex, brainstem nuclei, and somatosensory and vestibular systems.
- Compares planned movements with actual movements.
- Ensures precise timing, sequence, and control of movement (e.g., coordination and balance).
- Problems with this area can cause deficits in timing and controlling movement.
Basal Ganglia
- Parallel processing of timing and sequencing with the cerebellum.
- Involved in initiating movements.
- In Parkinson's disease, there is reduced "Go" and increased "Stop" due to reduced substantia nigra neurons.
- In Huntington's disease, symptoms include excessive movement.
Dopamine Pathways
- Involved in both "go" and "stop" pathways in the basal ganglia and thalamus.
- Dopamine is involved in both the initiation and control of movements.
Parkinson's Disease
- Marked by reduced "Go" and increased "Stop" due to substantia nigra neuron loss.
- Symptoms include stiffness, resting tremor, slow movement, mask-like face, pain, and depression.
- Treatment includes L-DOPA (to increase dopamine) and deep brain stimulation.
Huntington's Disease
- Affects neurons, particularly in the striatum; symptoms include excessive movement.
- Rare and highly genetically determined disorder.
Sensory Feedback
- Sensory systems monitor body's response and feed that response back to the brain to adjust movements.
- Reflexes are automatic responses and do not rely on feedback to adjust movements.
- Exceptions for sensory feedback are ballistic movements (sudden, brief movements).
Clinical Depression
- Five or more symptoms for at least two weeks (one major symptom is from 1-2)
- Symptoms include depressed mood, loss of interest, weight changes, sleep disturbances, fatigue decrease in energy, feelings of worthlessness, thoughts or ideas of death.
Hypomania
- Persistent mild elevation of mood
- Increased energy, activity, social interaction, thoughts, and goal pursuing behaviour.
Mania
- Distinct period of elevated mood, energy, and activity.
- At least one week of elevated mood with additional symptoms
- Can be described by: inflated self-esteem, decreased need for sleep, more talkative, racing thoughts, distractibility, increase in goal-directed activity, and potential for consequential actions.
Bipolar 1 and Bipolar 2
- Both involve mood swings, but Bipolar I also includes manic episodes.
- Bipolar II is characterized by hypomanic episodes and periods of depression.
Neuroplasticity
- Changes in nervous system resulting from experience.
- It involves formation of new neural connections throughout life.
- Three mechanisms of neuroplasticity are described as functional plasticity, structural plasticity, and neurogenesis.
- Critical periods during development allow for high plasticity.
Neurogenesis
- Formation of new neurons in the brain.
- Primarily occurs during development, but also exists in the adult brain.
Visual System as a Model of Neuroplasticity
- Children with cataracts (阻碍视觉) experience reorganization of the brain's visual system.
- The brain prioritizes the functional non-deprived eye.
- Changes are different in adults than children.
Motor Equivalence
- Multiple ways to perform the same action.
- This ability is achieved through brain reorganization and is essential for adaptation.
Treatment of Parkinson Disease
- L-DOPA is used as a treatment
- Medication (to increase dopamine) and deep brain stimulation.
Aging
- Brain volume decreases gradually after age 40, more rapidly after 70.
- Specific brain areas like the frontal cortex shrink faster compared to other areas.
- Neurotransmitters such as dopamine and serotonin decline with age.
- Accumulation of white matter damage.
- There is a small degree of Alzheimer's pathology and small neuronal loss.
- Socioemotional changes may occur (e.g., smaller social group, more emotionally close partners).
Ethical Considerations (Including Brain Computer Interfaces)
- Brain computer interfaces need to address ethical issues, like safety, decision control, harm prevention, and user capacity, informed consent, and privacy.
- Biases, culpability and potential harm to one's identity that can be caused by the technology need to be examined.
Distinguishing Between Clinical Conditions
- There are distinct symptom presentations, criteria, and etiologies for different neuropsychological conditions (MCI, AD, Bipolar disorders, etc.).
- Differentiating conditions can require medical history, clinical testing, observation of symptoms (including memory performance, behaviour, daily living activities) and brain imaging.
Artificial Intelligence
- Big data has five key characteristics: Volume (amount of data), Variety (formats/types), Velocity (speed of data), Veracity (accuracy), and Value (usefulness derived from the data).
- Artificial intelligence is capable of processing brain-health data that includes structured and unstructured data.
- Machine learning is a subset of AI systems that can categorize and predict using specific algorithms.
Cognitive Rehabilitation Therapy
- Cognitive Rehabilitation Therapy Aims to improve cognitive functioning through compensation, plasticity, and recovery.
- Examples of applications include TBI and stroke.
- Strategies used in therapy can include mnemonic strategies, external supports, and targeting neglected areas.
BCI (Brain Computer Interface)
- Defines BCI: artificial interface for the brain to interact with the external world using different mechanisms (speech, typing, movement).
- Types of BCI include non-invasive (e.g., EEG), semi-invasive (e.g., electrodes), and invasive.
- Applications include controlling movement, communication, etc.
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Description
Explore the intricacies of the sensorimotor system, detailing the roles of higher and lower brain levels in planning and executing movements. Learn about the importance of parallel processing by the basal ganglia and cerebellum, and how practice alters brain function through response chunking.
