Sensation, Perception, and Learning

• Absolute threshold is the minimum stimulus intensity detectable about 50% of the time.
• Signal detection theory involves becoming aware of a sensory stimulus and distinguishing it from background noise.
• Difference threshold is the smallest detectable increase or decrease in a stimulus.
• JND stands for just noticeable difference and is related to the difference threshold.
• Weber's Law states that the JND is proportional to the initial stimulus intensity.
• Transduction is the conversion of stimuli detected by specialized sensory receptors into electrical impulses.
• Sensory adaptation occurs when you become less sensitive to an unchanging stimulus.
• More stimulus is needed after sensory adaptation to achieve the same effect.
• Learning is a relatively permanent change in behavior, knowledge, capabilities, or attitudes.
• Learning is acquired through experience.

Gestalt Principles

• Similarity: Grouping similar items together.
• Closure: Perceiving incomplete objects as complete.
• Continuity: Seeing elements arranged on a line or curve as related.
• Figure/Ground: Distinguishing an object from its background.
• Proximity: Grouping nearby items together.

Reinforcement Types

• Positive reinforcement: Adding something desirable to increase behavior.

• Negative reinforcement: Removing something undesirable to increase behavior.

• Primary reinforcement: Naturally reinforcing (e.g., food).

• Secondary reinforcement: Learned reinforcer (e.g., money).

• Continuous reinforcement: Reinforcing every response.

• Partial reinforcement: Reinforcing some responses.

• Endorphins are natural pain relievers.

• Operant conditioning is learning through consequences.

• Generalization is when stimuli similar to the original conditioned stimulus elicit a conditioned response.

• Discrimination is when responses are only made to the original conditioned stimulus.

• Extinction is the disappearance of a conditioned response over time.

• Spontaneous recovery is the reappearance of a conditioned response after extinction (classical conditioning).

• Sensation is the physical detection of stimuli.

• Perception is the psychological interpretation of sensations.

• The vestibular sense is the sense of balance.

• The kinesthetic sense is the sense of body position and coordination, related to phantom limb sensations.

• Pheromones are chemicals secreted externally in humans and animals, acting as signals for fertility or territoriality.

• Bottom-up processing starts with individual parts to build a whole pattern, used in new situations.

• Top-down processing immediately sees the whole pattern and breaks it down if needed, used in familiar situations.

• Behavior modification applies learning principles to eliminate undesirable behaviors and encourage desirable ones.

• The Bobo doll study, by Bandura, showed that children who observed aggressive models were more likely to act aggressively.

• Shaping is teaching complex behaviors through operant conditioning.

• Learned helplessness is passive resignation resulting from repeated exposure to inescapable and unavoidable adverse conditions.

• Avoidance learning occurs when engaging in behavior to avoid negative consequences.

• The number of pairings influences classical conditioning.

• Immediacy influences operant conditioning.

Significance of Pain

• Pain causes withdrawal.
• Pain sets limits.
• Pain serves as a basis for learning.
• The gate control theory combines physical and psychological aspects of pain.
• Culture and social context impact how pain is expressed, felt, and treated.