Scientific Thinking and Evolution Quiz

Study Notes

Scientific Thinking

Scientific thinking uses a structured approach to understand observable events in nature and reject hypotheses about the world, it relies on observation, formulating hypotheses, making predictions, and conducting experiments.
A hypothesis is a prediction about a possible correlation between two things, while a theory is a well-tested, proven explanation for a set of factors.
Controlling an experiment involves managing all variables except for the independent variable, which helps ensure no underlying factors influence the results.
Superstitions, anecdotal observations, and pseudoscience are not scientific thinking; they are unjustified beliefs, subjective observations, and misconceptions respectively.
A hypothesis, even with strong supportive evidence, can never be proven entirely true as new information constantly emerges.

Evolution and Natural Selection

Evolution is the gradual change in a species, marked by a change in allele frequency within a population. It occurs through genetic drift, natural selection, mutations, and gene flow.
Natural selection is the process where a species adapts to its environment through variability, heritability, and differential reproductive success.
Darwin's observations on Galapagos finches, fossil similarities, offspring overproduction, competition, and trait inheritance influenced his theory.
Artificial selection works similarly to natural selection by manipulating traits for breeding, resulting in enhanced traits.
Genetic drift is related to Mendel's first law as both involve the random distribution of alleles within a population.
Sexual selection is a type of evolution where exaggerated traits enhance reproductive success, leading to trade-offs between traits and survival; an example is the peacock's feathers.

Nature, Nurture, and Norm-of-Reaction

The norm of reaction is a graph that represents the relationship between genotypes and phenotypes, displaying how different genotypes respond to varying environmental conditions.
The slope of the norm of reaction graph indicates the influence of environment on phenotype; a steep slope signifies a strong environmental influence.
Evolutionary fitness refers to an organism's relative reproductive success within a specific environment. Fitness is assessed relative to other genotypes, in a specific environment, and by reproductive success.
Evolutionary mismatch occurs when the environment changes rapidly or an organism is removed from its adapted environment; for instance, humans' hunter-gatherer programming leading to overeating in a food-abundant world.

Genetics

Dominant alleles require only one copy to express their trait, while recessive alleles need two copies.
Probability is used to determine inheritance patterns using Mendel's law of segregation and calculating coefficients of relatedness in pedigrees.
Mendel's first law explains why offspring resemble their parents due to receiving one allele from each parent.
Sex-linked traits are carried on sex chromosomes, like color blindness on the X chromosome; making males more likely to express them due to having only one X chromosome.
Multiple alleles within a population contribute to various phenotypes; for instance, blood types – with A and B being dominant to O and codominant with each other.

Kin Selection and Reciprocal Altruism

Fitness refers to an individual's reproductive success, while inclusive fitness encompasses both direct fitness (offspring) and indirect fitness (helping relatives). Belding's ground squirrels illustrate this with alarm calls that decrease their own survival but benefit relatives.
Hamilton's rule explains the likelihood of altruism toward genetic relatives based on their coefficient of relatedness. Higher relatedness increases the chance of altruistic behavior.
Evidence for Hamilton's rule includes the higher probability of altruism towards closer relatives and the higher likelihood of violence towards unrelated individuals or stepchildren.
The coefficient of relatedness is a quantitative measure of genetic relatedness calculated by tracing the pedigree and multiplying by 0.5 for each relative passed through. It helps predict behavior based on kinship.
True altruism involves selflessness, while apparent altruism, driven by natural selection, actually benefits the actor.
Reciprocal altruism occurs when individuals expect future benefits from acts of kindness, particularly in repeated interaction with predictable partners who can distinguish between cheaters and cooperative individuals.
Rules of thumb, shaped by natural selection, influence behaviors that maximize individual fitness.
Strategies to enhance cooperation among unrelated individuals include: manipulating perceived costs and benefits, identifying cheaters, and reducing vulnerability.
The ultimatum game, where one player proposes a division of a sum and the other accepts or rejects it, demonstrates the role of fairness and reciprocal altruism in human behavior.