Scientific Method and Atoms Quiz

Scientific Method

• Consists of five steps: observation, hypothesis, experiment, data collection/analysis, and conclusion.

Bar Graph Interpretation

• The image shows a bar graph titled "Effect of Toothbrushing Pressure on Gum Recession."
• The x-axis represents brushing pressure levels (Light, Moderate, and Heavy).
• The y-axis represents gum recession (in mm).
• Heavy brushing pressure resulted in the highest level of gum recession.

Atoms & Bonds

• Protons are found in the nucleus and have a positive charge.
• Electrons orbit the nucleus and have a negative charge.
• Neutrons are found in the nucleus and have no charge.

Covalent Bonds

• The number of unpaired electrons an atom has determines how many covalent bonds it can form.
• Hydrogen forms one covalent bond.
• Oxygen forms two covalent bonds.
• Nitrogen forms three covalent bonds.
• Carbon forms four covalent bonds.

Water

• Covalent bonds are stronger than ionic bonds, which are stronger than hydrogen bonds.
• Covalent bonds involve sharing electrons.
• Ionic bonds involve the transfer of electrons.
• Hydrogen bonds involve partial opposite charges attracting.

pH scale

• The pH scale measures the concentration of H+ ions in a solution.
• Lower pH values indicate higher H+ concentrations (acidic).
• Higher pH values indicate lower H+ concentrations (basic).

Dehydration vs. Hydrolysis

• Dehydration reactions build polymers by removing water.
• Hydrolysis reactions break down polymers by adding water.

Macromolecules

• Carbohydrates are made of simple sugars (monosaccharides).
• Proteins are made of amino acids.
• Lipids are made of glycerol and fatty acids.
• Nucleic acids are made of nucleotides.

Protein Structure

• Protein structure is classified into four levels: primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary.
• Primary structure is the linear sequence of amino acids.
• Secondary structure involves hydrogen bonding between amino acids (e.g., alpha helix, beta sheet).
• Tertiary structure is the 3D folding of the polypeptide chain.
• Quaternary structure involves the combination of multiple polypeptide chains.
• Denaturation is the unraveling of a protein due to extreme pH or high heat.

Cell (Ch 3)

• Diffusion involves the movement of molecules from high to low concentration.
• Osmosis is the movement of water across a membrane from low to high solute concentration.
• Hypotonic solutions have low solute concentration, causing cells to swell or burst.
• Hypertonic solutions have high solute concentration, causing cells to shrink.
• Isotonic solutions have equal solute concentration, maintaining cell size.

Endoplasmic Reticulum and Ribosomes

• Rough ER has ribosomes and synthesizes proteins.
• Smooth ER synthesizes phospholipids and other lipids.
• Ribosomes synthesize proteins.

Golgi Apparatus and Lysosomes

• Golgi apparatus processes, packages, and secretes proteins.
• Lysosomes contain enzymes to break down foreign matter.

Cellular Respiration

• Aerobic respiration requires oxygen.
• Anaerobic respiration does not require oxygen.
• Glycolysis occurs in the cytoplasm.
• Pyruvate oxidation and the citric acid cycle occur in the mitochondrial matrix.
• Oxygen accepts electrons at the end of the electron transport chain.

Mitosis (Ch 19)

• Mitosis is cell division that produces two identical daughter cells.
• The five phases of mitosis are prophase, prometaphase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase.
• Cytokinesis is the division of the cytoplasm.

Meiosis (Ch 19)

• Meiosis is cell division that produces four unique haploid daughter cells.
• Meiosis occurs in two main phases (Meiosis I and Meiosis II).
• Homologous chromosomes pair during Meiosis I.
• Sister chromatids separate in Meiosis II.
• Crossing over and independent assortment lead to variations in genetic material.

Crossing Over & Independent Assortment

• Crossing over is the exchange of genetic material between homologous chromosomes.
• Independent assortment is the random alignment of homologous chromosomes during metaphase I.

Cancer (Ch 20)

• Cancer cells lack differentiation, have abnormal nuclei, fail to undergo apoptosis, have unlimited potential to replicate, lack contact inhibition, and can undergo angiogenesis and metastasis.
• Radiation therapy targets localized cancer, while chemotherapy is for body-wide metastasized cancer.

Inheritance Patterns (Ch 21)

• Dominant alleles mask recessive ones.
• Punnett squares predict genotypic and phenotypic ratios in monohybrid crosses.
• Pedigree charts show inheritance patterns across generations, relating to autosomal recessive and dominant traits.

Polygenic Inheritance & Multifactorial Traits (Ch 21)

• Polygenic traits result from multiple genes, having continuous variation in phenotypes (e.g., skin color).
• Multifactorial traits involve multiple genes and environmental factors (e.g., schizophrenia, alcoholism).
• Pleiotropy is when one gene affects multiple traits.

DNA vs RNA

• DNA is double-stranded, using deoxyribose sugar and bases (ATCG).
• RNA is single-stranded, using ribose sugar and bases (AUCG).

Nervous System I (Ch 14)

• Neuron structure includes axon terminals, cell bodies, dendrites and axons.
• Depolarization involves sodium (Na+) channels opening to allow Na+ into the axon.
• Repolarization involves potassium (K+) channels opening to allow K+ out of the axon.

Nervous System II (Ch 14)

• The brain's major structures include the corpus callosum, cerebral cortex; hypothalamus, cerebellum and medulla oblongata, each having specific functions.
• Sympathetic nervous systems activate during stressful situations and emergency, causing excitement or emergency.
• Parasympathetic nervous systems activate when body are at rest, causing digestion.

Sensory System (Ch 15)

• Sensory receptors include photoreceptors (for light), mechanoreceptors (for pressure/touch), chemoreceptors (for taste/smell), and thermoreceptors (for temperature).
• Rods are best for seeing in white light. Cones are best for seeing color.

Epithelial Cells and Feedback (Ch 4)

• Epithelial cells have different classifications (e.g. simple, pseudostratified, stratified), and shapes (e.g., squamous, cuboidal, or columnar).
• Negative feedback systems produce the opposite effect to maintain homeostasis.
• Positive feedback systems maintain the effect to the stimulus.

Digestive System I & II (Ch 9)

• Mechanical digestion breaks down food into smaller pieces while chemical digestion uses enzymes to break down the bonds in food.
• Enzymes pepsin, amylase and trypsin break down proteins, starch and proteins, respectively, and are released from the stomach or pancreas.
• The pancreas releases pancreatic juice (containing bicarbonate, amylase, trypsin and lipase) into the small intestines for digestion.
• The large intestine absorbs water and stores feces.

Respiratory System (Ch 10)

• Pulmonary surfactant reduces surface tension in alveoli (preventing collapse).
• Gas exchange in the lungs and tissues occurs due to pressure differences of O2 and CO2.

Heart and Blood Vessels (Ch 5)

• Blood flows through arteries, arterioles, capillaries, venules and veins.
• Right atrium → Right AV valve → Right ventricle → Left atrium → Left AV valve → Left ventricle, outlining the heart's circulatory route.
• Systolic pressure is the pressure when the heart is actively pumping blood.
• Diastolic pressure is the pressure when the heart is relaxed between cardiac cycles.
• Valves, skeletal muscles, help propel blood through the venous system towards the heart.

Red Blood Cells (Ch 6)

• Hemoglobin can carry four oxygen molecules.
• Oxygen binds weakly, while carbon monoxide binds strongly to hemoglobin..
• White blood cells (e.g., neutrophils, eosinophils, monocytes, lymphocytes, basophils) have different functions in immunity.
• ABO blood types affect blood compatibility (O is the universal donor, AB is the universal recipient).

Immune System (Ch 7)

• Innate immunity is the non-specific immune response occurring immediately after infection.
• Adaptive immunity is the specific immune response occurring after an infection.
• Helper T-cells release cytokines to activate B-cells.
• Cytotoxic T-cells destroy infected cells.
• Memory T-cells remember past infections.
• Active immunity results from the body making its own antibodies.
• Passive immunity involves receiving antibodies from another source.
• Vaccines stimulate the immune system to develop immunity to specific diseases.

Infectious Diseases (Ch 8)

• Bacteria have structures like cell walls, flagella, fimbriae, and pili, having specific functions within the bacteria.
• Epidemics involve more cases of a disease than expected, outbreaks are confined to a localized region and pandemics are global.

Test your knowledge of the scientific method, understanding of atomic structure, and the nature of covalent bonds in this quiz. Explore concepts including observation, hypothesis, and the differences between covalent and ionic bonds. This quiz is perfect for students looking to reinforce their understanding of fundamental science principles.