DRI Final
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Questions and Answers

What is the focus of impact analysis in evaluation research?

  • To determine if the program had the intended results (correct)
  • To assess the program's efficiency
  • To evaluate the process of program execution
  • To understand the implementation of a program

    • In which mixed-methods design are both qualitative and quantitative methods used concurrently with equal importance?

  • Sequential design
  • Integrated design (correct)
  • Embedded design
  • Staged design

    • Which of the following indicates that the primary method in a mixed-methods design has priority?

  • QUAL(quan) (correct)
  • QUAN(qual)
  • qual→QUAN
  • QUALQUAN

    • What does efficiency analysis evaluate in a social program?

    <p>The relationship between program benefits and costs</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of design involves performing methods in sequence where one method takes precedence over the other?

    <p>Sequential design</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is defined as a set of logical, systematic, documented methods for investigating nature and natural processes?

    <p>Science</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of research focuses on identifying causes and effects of social phenomena?

    <p>Explanatory research</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What misconception involves observing only elements that reinforce existing beliefs?

    <p>Selective observation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which method is designed to capture social life as experienced by participants rather than predetermined categories?

    <p>Qualitative methods</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of research seeks to define and describe social phenomena of interest?

    <p>Descriptive research</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What term refers to the belief that a separate reality exists independent of perception?

    <p>Positivism</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which common error involves concluding that what is true for a few cases is true for all?

    <p>Over-generalisation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What best describes triangulation in research?

    <p>Employing multiple methods to study a single question</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which orientation relies on numerical methods to summarize data?

    <p>Quantitative methods</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of research examines programs or policies to evaluate their impact on social patterns?

    <p>Evaluative research</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is characterized by an emphasis on questioning the belief in an external reality?

    <p>Constructivism</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the first step in the social research process?

    <p>Establishing a research question</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which concept addresses the errors made in everyday reasoning within social science?

    <p>Scientific methods</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a noted strength of mixed-methods studies?

    <p>Enhances measurement validity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a primary challenge associated with mixed-methods studies?

    <p>Each method requires specific expertise</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What ethical concern arises when evaluating ongoing entitlement programs?

    <p>Potentially barring participants from eligibility</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is an ethical challenge in evaluation research?

    <p>Preserving confidentiality in legally owned data</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How might political considerations impact evaluation research?

    <p>They can shape research decisions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What issue must evaluators consider regarding the burden on participants?

    <p>The tolerability of the evaluation project’s burden</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a potential consequence of providing evaluation findings only to policymakers?

    <p>Reduced transparency and trust</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What uncertainty might evaluators face regarding proposed program improvements?

    <p>The potential effectiveness is uncertain</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is typically included in the front matter of an applied research report?

    <p>Table of contents</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following best describes the purpose of an applied research report?

    <p>To meet the diverse needs of multiple audiences</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What distinguishes a journal article from other research reports?

    <p>It focuses on answering a particular research question</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is an important ethical consideration when writing research reports?

    <p>Providing an honest account of the research process</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which section of a research report typically identifies gaps in existing research?

    <p>Literature review</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does 'passive consent' refer to in the context of research involving children?

    <p>Participants are automatically included unless parents object.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What should every research report include to enhance clarity?

    <p>Clear statements of the research question</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT a major section found in a research report?

    <p>Appendices</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a common misconception about the results presented in research reports?

    <p>Only statistically significant results are reported.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is an essential part of the revision process in writing research reports?

    <p>Shortening and clarifying statements</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of validity checks if a measure appears to be appropriate at face value?

    <p>Face validity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which sampling method involves selecting elements based on convenience?

    <p>Availability sampling</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which design includes a pre-test post-test control group?

    <p>Randomized comparative change design</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following statements is true about ecological fallacy?

    <p>Using group data to analyze individual processes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does spurious relationship refer to in research design?

    <p>Relationship between two variables caused by a third variable</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What best describes a representative sample?

    <p>A subset that accurately reflects the population's characteristics</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the major difference between random assignment and random sampling?

    <p>Random assignment is concerned with group allocation, while random sampling refers to obtaining subjects from a population</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which sampling error can occur due to the overrepresentation or underrepresentation of certain population characteristics?

    <p>Systematic bias</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of experimental design eliminates possible systematic bias through random assignment?

    <p>Randomized controlled design</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is meant by 'predictive validity'?

    <p>A measure can forecast future scores on a criterion</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What effect might occur when both the treatment group and control group know about each other?

    <p>Contamination</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a characteristic of stratified random sampling?

    <p>It partitions the population into strata before random selection</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What concept describes the relationship that leads researchers to say 'correlation does not imply causation'?

    <p>Common variations may influence correlated outcomes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is meant by 'integrated design' in mixed-methods research?

    <p>Both methods are used concurrently and given equal importance.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In efficiency analysis of a social program, what is primarily assessed?

    <p>The balance between the program's benefits and its costs.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which statement best describes 'staged design' in mixed-methods research?

    <p>One method takes precedence over another in a sequential manner.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What characteristic distinguishes an 'embedded design' in mixed-methods research?

    <p>Quantitative methods are used mainly to support qualitative findings.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    A mixed-methods study that indicates equal importance to qualitative and quantitative research is referred to as what?

    <p>Integrated design</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a potential risk associated with using Big Data for social research?

    <p>Overestimation of certain trends</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of historical research focuses on the context and interrelations between events?

    <p>Holistic and conjunctural research</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What ethical challenge arises from using unobtrusive methods in research?

    <p>Potential identification of subjects</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the process of content analysis entail?

    <p>Objective coding of message characteristics</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What characteristic defines needs assessment in evaluation research?

    <p>Assessing whether a new program is needed or if the current one is sufficient</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is a disadvantage of using Big Data in research?

    <p>Potential bias due to overrepresentation in data collection</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which evaluation type focuses specifically on the service delivery process?

    <p>Process evaluation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of research method is concerned with a series of events over time?

    <p>Temporal research</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a drawback of using secondary sources in historical research?

    <p>Bias towards successful figures</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which method allows for comparisons between different countries in social science research?

    <p>Comparative social science methods</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of evaluation identifies whether program benefits exceed its costs?

    <p>Efficiency analysis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What kind of data are typically collected through social media platforms?

    <p>Usage patterns and trends</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a primary concern of ethical challenges in evaluation research?

    <p>Potential harm to participants</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary purpose of an applied research report?

    <p>To describe a wide range of study findings for diverse audiences</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which section of a research report is responsible for identifying gaps in previous research?

    <p>Introduction</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which statement accurately describes passive consent in research?

    <p>Returning a form signifies lack of consent</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What element is crucial for ensuring ethical standards in research reporting?

    <p>Providing a full record of the research project</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which aspect is emphasized in journal articles as opposed to other research reports?

    <p>Focus on answering a specific research question</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a common characteristic of the back matter in an applied research report?

    <p>Appendixes and research instruments</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which writing strategy enhances clarity in research reports?

    <p>Shortening and clarifying statements</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does effective research reporting require regarding the research process?

    <p>Honest accounting of any changes made</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following should every research report include?

    <p>A clear research question statement</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What can significantly reduce participation in research involving children?

    <p>Mailing consent forms without follow-up</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary characteristic of ratio measurement?

    <p>It includes a numeric scale starting from zero.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What defines ecological fallacy?

    <p>Using group-level findings to analyze individual-level data.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is face validity concerned with?

    <p>Whether a measure appears to be appropriate at first glance.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In which type of sampling does every member of the sampling frame have a known probability of being selected?

    <p>Probability sampling</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Under which circumstance is the use of sampling often unnecessary?

    <p>When the entire population is surveyed.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of experimental design allows for comparisons between experimental and control groups?

    <p>True experimental design</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of a sampling frame in research?

    <p>To list all elements within a population.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the term 'predictive validity' refer to?

    <p>The ability to predict future outcomes based on a current measure.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What sampling method is particularly useful when reaching hard-to-identify populations?

    <p>Snowball sampling</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the term 'sampling error' refer to?

    <p>The difference in characteristics between the sample and the population.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In an experimental design, what does random assignment aim to achieve?

    <p>Ensure that treatment groups are equivalent before intervention.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What best describes differential attrition in experimental studies?

    <p>Certain groups drop out at different rates affecting validity.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a major disadvantage of using nonprobability sampling methods?

    <p>They can introduce systematic bias.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is one main advantage of web surveys compared to traditional survey methods?

    <p>They allow the use of various media to clarify meaning.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which method is likely to increase response rates in phone surveys?

    <p>Offering monetary incentives to respondents.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the purpose of conducting mixed-mode surveys?

    <p>To reach a larger sample size more efficiently.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What ethical concern is associated with netnography?

    <p>Researchers might misrepresent their identities to the group.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Field researchers must ensure which aspect is maintained when developing relationships?

    <p>Consistent engagement without imparting biases.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a notable challenge of participant observation in qualitative research?

    <p>Researcher cannot take notes or ask questions.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a significant concern regarding the confidentiality of qualitative research?

    <p>Participants may inadvertently disclose others' private information.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which participant observer role involves disclosing the researcher's identity?

    <p>Overt observation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a primary characteristic of intensive interviewing in qualitative research?

    <p>Allows extensive, open-ended responses and follow-up questions.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a risk associated with covert participation observation?

    <p>The researcher may influence the group's behavior inadvertently.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of research design is best suited for studying cultures within a group?

    <p>Ethnography</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does secondary data analysis involve?

    <p>Using existing data to answer new research questions.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What factor can lead to coverage bias in web surveys?

    <p>Restricted access to diverse demographics.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary purpose of efficiency analysis in a social program?

    <p>To assess whether the benefits of a program outweigh its costs.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In a mixed-methods design, how is an embedded design characterized?

    <p>One method is prioritized over the other while being used concurrently.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which mixed-methods design indicates a sequence where qualitative research precedes quantitative research?

    <p>QUAL→QUAN</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a key advantage of using mixed-methods research in evaluating social programs?

    <p>It provides a more comprehensive perspective by combining different methodologies.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What distinguishes the integrated design in mixed-methods research from other designs?

    <p>It utilizes both methods concurrently with equal emphasis on each.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary aim of exploratory research in social science?

    <p>To understand the setting and meanings related to social phenomena</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which method is most likely to use quantitative analysis to summarize data?

    <p>Descriptive research</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the term 'selective observation' refer to in social research?

    <p>Choosing to ignore data that contradicts beliefs</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What characterizes qualitative methods in social research?

    <p>They capture social phenomena from participants' perspectives.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following poses a challenge to the reliability of findings in social research?

    <p>Overgeneralization from limited observations</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does 'triangulation' in research signify?

    <p>The combination of methods to improve the depth of research</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the fundamental difference between positivism and constructivism?

    <p>Positivism assumes an objective reality, whereas constructivism questions this notion.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of research primarily focuses on evaluating programs and policies?

    <p>Evaluative research</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is typically a limitation of social science research?

    <p>The difficulty in gathering first-hand empirical data</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a key focus when conducting explanatory research?

    <p>To predict how changes in one phenomenon affect another</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following best illustrates the error of 'resistance to change' in everyday reasoning?

    <p>Rejecting new ideas that conflict with established beliefs</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In social research, what does 'inaccurate observation' refer to?

    <p>Observing based on distorted perceptions of reality</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a primary issue associated with the use of Big Data in social research?

    <p>Data may overestimate trends based on biased samples.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What defines quantitative methods in social research?

    <p>They deal with numerical data and measurements.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT an advantage of using Big Data?

    <p>Inherent privacy controls for individuals involved.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of historical research focuses on the context and interrelations of different events?

    <p>Holistic and conjunctural.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What ethical challenge is most associated with using secondary data for research?

    <p>Potential identification of individuals.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does content analysis primarily focus on?

    <p>Systematic analysis of message characteristics.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a potential drawback of comparative social science methods?

    <p>Difficulty addressing cultural differences between countries.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary focus of process evaluation in program assessment?

    <p>Investigating the service delivery methods used.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a limitation frequently encountered in historical research?

    <p>Evidence available may favor prominent individuals or events.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What main question does needs assessment in evaluation research address?

    <p>Is there any need for a new program or continuation of an old one?</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following describes an issue related to government-provided data in social research?

    <p>Government data can be influenced by social or political pressures.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which term refers to information that shapes service delivery system outputs or processes?

    <p>Feedback.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of these is a method to analyze social phenomena through patterns in messaging?

    <p>Content analysis.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What characteristic distinguishes qualitative research from other methodologies?

    <p>Emphasis on narrative and contextual understanding.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What primary limitation might affect the accuracy of historical research findings?

    <p>Potential loss of records and biased existing evidence.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a significant advantage of using web surveys compared to other survey methods?

    <p>They allow the use of various forms of media to clarify meaning.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which issue is NOT a common ethical challenge in survey research?

    <p>The accuracy of self-reported data.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary purpose of mixed-mode surveys?

    <p>To utilize the strengths of individual survey designs and improve response rates.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What aspect distinguishes qualitative research from quantitative research?

    <p>It captures social phenomena as experienced by participants.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which observation method allows researchers to build rapport with participants while maintaining research goals?

    <p>Overt participation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    When conducting participant observation, which of the following poses the greatest challenge?

    <p>Managing personal biases during interaction.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a primary reason for the ineffectiveness of random digit dialing in phone surveys?

    <p>It primarily targets only landline users.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role does a gatekeeper play in field research?

    <p>They control access to the research setting.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which interviewing method prioritizes the experiences and feelings of the respondent?

    <p>Intensive interviewing</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In unobtrusive research methods, what is a major benefit?

    <p>They reduce potential bias from self-reports.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which method is specifically designed to study cultures through immersion?

    <p>Ethnography</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a potential challenge when researching online communities through netnography?

    <p>There is a risk of cultural misinterpretation.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does sensitivity to reflexivity in qualitative research entail?

    <p>Acknowledging the influence of the researcher on the research process.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is an important strategy for enhancing participant consent in qualitative research?

    <p>Employing ongoing consent mechanisms during the study.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What defines a dependent variable in research?

    <p>A variable that is affected by the independent variable</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which research design collects data from the same sample at multiple points in time?

    <p>Panel study</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is highlighted when a research study demonstrates measurement validity?

    <p>The measures accurately represent the concepts they intend to evaluate</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does generalizability refer to in the context of research findings?

    <p>The applicability of conclusions drawn from a sample to a larger population</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What key ethical principle ensures that research participants are treated fairly?

    <p>Justice</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which term refers to unexpected patterns in data that prompt new insights or explanations?

    <p>Serendipitous findings</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the purpose of an institutional review board (IRB) in research?

    <p>To review research proposals involving human subjects to ensure ethical standards are met</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of research is specifically aimed at understanding cause-effect relationships?

    <p>Explanatory research</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the term 'operationalization' refer to in social research?

    <p>Transforming abstract ideas into measurable variables</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a key characteristic of exploratory research?

    <p>It focuses on in-depth understanding of social interactions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What aspect of a study does authenticity address in social research?

    <p>The representation of diverse participant perspectives</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is a characteristic of longitudinal research design?

    <p>Participants are usually from a single population across multiple phases</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is emphasized by the concept of measurement validity?

    <p>It accurately reflects the concept that it is intended to assess</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of sampling is characterized by selecting members who are easily accessible?

    <p>Convenience sampling</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What do 'trend studies' in longitudinal research primarily focus on?

    <p>Shifts in the same population across different points in time</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Study Notes

    Science, Society, and Social Research

    • Scientific method: systematic, logical process for investigating nature and natural processes
    • Social science: application of the scientific method to understand individuals, societies, and social processes
    • Common errors in everyday reasoning:
      • Selective observation: Favoring observations that align with pre-existing beliefs.
      • Inaccurate observation: Misunderstanding or misinterpreting observations.
      • Over-generalization: Assuming what's true for a few applies to everyone.
      • Resistance to change: Ignoring evidence that contradicts existing beliefs.
    • Types of social research:
      • Descriptive research: Defining and outlining social phenomena.
      • Exploratory research: Seeking to understand social occurrences without pre-conceived notions.
      • Explanatory research: Investigating cause-and-effect relationships.
      • Evaluation research: Examining programs, policies, and their impacts; often incorporates elements of the other types of research.

    Quantitative vs Qualitative

    • Quantitative methods: Using measurements and numerical data to study phenomena.
    • Qualitative methods: Gathering in-depth information through participant observations, interviews, and focus groups to understand experiences and meanings.

    Positivism vs Constructivism

    • Positivism: Belief in an objective reality discoverable through empirical observation, following laws of nature.
    • Constructivism: Focuses on understanding how individuals construct their realities based on their experiences and perspectives.

    Triangulation

    • The use of multiple methods to study a research question; strengthens research by combining advantages of different approaches.

    The Research Process

    • Social research question: A question about the social world that can be investigated through data collection and analysis.

    Levels of Measurement

    • Interval: Equal intervals between levels with numeric values representing the distance between variables.
    • Ratio: Similar to Interval level but includes a zero point. A numeric scale starting from zero.
    • Dichotomies: Categorical measurement with only two values.

    Units of Analysis

    • Individual Level Analysis: Data focused on individual level characteristics.
    • Group Level Analysis: Data focused on group level characteristics.

    Fallacies

    • Ecological Fallacy: Using group level data to analyze individual level processes.
    • Reductionist Fallacy: Using individual level data to analyze group level processes.

    Measurement Validity Approaches

    • Face Validity: A measure “looks” right to experts.
    • Content Validity: The measure covers the full range of the concept's meaning.
    • Criterion Validity: Scores from one measure are comparable to scores on a more direct measure of the same phenomenon.
      • Concurrent Validity: Scores closely related to scores on a criterion measured at the same time.
      • Predictive Validity: Ability to predict future scores on a criterion.
    • Construct Validity: A measure is related to other measures as specified in a theory.

    Sampling Concepts

    • Population: The entire set of individuals or entities being studied.
    • Sample: Subset of the population used to study the population as a whole.
    • Elements: Individual members of the population.
    • Sampling Frame: A list of all elements or units containing elements in a population.
    • Sampling Units: Units listed in a multistage sampling design.
    • Sampling Error: Any difference between a sample and the population.
    • Target Population: The population to which the researcher wants to generalize findings.
    • Representative Sample: Sample that reflects the population in all relevant aspects.
    • Census: Research involving the entire population.
    • Probability Sampling Method: Random selection with known probability of selection.
    • Nonprobability Sampling Method: Sampling methods not based on the likelihood of selecting each element.
    • Non-respondents: Individuals who do not participate in a study.
    • Systematic Bias: Overrepresentation or underrepresentation of population characteristics due to sampling method.
    • Random Sampling: Sampling relies on chance selection.

    Generalizability

    • Cross-population generalizability: Study findings can be generalized to other populations.
    • Sample generalizability: Findings can be generalized to the population from which the sample was selected.

    Circumstances Where Sampling Is Unnecessary

    • Identical Individuals: Sampling not needed if all individuals are identical – rare.
    • Census: When conducting a census of the entire population.

    Relations Among Desired Sample, Obtained Sample, & Sampling Frame

    • Desired Sample: Meant to provide the highest sample quality.
    • Sampling Frame: Based on the desired sample.
    • Obtained Sample: Determines the real sample quality.

    Types of Probability Sampling

    • Simple Random Sampling: Choosing sampling units by lottery or random number generator. Useful for phone surveys.
    • Systematic Random Sampling: Choosing the first element and then every nth element. Requires no printed sampling frame. Elements can be represented by folders in filing cabinets.
    • Stratified Random Sampling: Dividing the population into relevant strata and then randomly selecting elements from each strata. Ensures representativeness.
      • Proportionate Stratified Sampling: Same proportion of individuals in the sample as in the population.
      • Disproportionate Stratified Sampling: Intentionally varies proportions of individuals in the sample from the population.
    • Cluster Sampling: Useful when a sampling frame is not available for geographically dispersed populations.
      • Multistage Cluster Sampling: Involves selecting clusters within clusters.

    Preferred Nonprobability Sampling Methods

    • Availability Sampling: Selecting elements based on convenience. Good for researching a specific setting but has low generalizability.
    • Quota Sampling: Ensuring the sample represents certain characteristics in proportion to their prevalence in the population. Overcomes the limitations of availability sampling.
    • Purposive Sampling: Selecting sample elements for a specific purpose, often based on unique characteristics.
    • Snowball Sampling: Useful for hard-to-reach populations where members are interconnected.

    Sampling Error

    • Random Sample: Free from systematic bias, but still has sampling error due to chance.
    • Size and Homogeneity: Larger and more homogeneous samples lead to less error due to chance.

    Causation and Experimental Design

    • Causal Explanation: Identifies common influences on multiple cases or events.
    • Causal Effect: Variation in an independent variable leads to variation in a dependent variable.
    • Spurious Relationship: Relationship between two variables caused by a third, unconsidered variable.
    • Extraneous Variable: Influences both the independent and dependent variables, creating a spurious association.
    • Quasi-experimental Design: Similar to experimental designs but without random assignment to groups.
      • Non-equivalent Control Group Design: Experimental and comparison groups are designated before treatment but not randomly assigned.
      • Before and After Designs: No control group, all participants are exposed to the experimental condition.
      • Repeated-Measures Panel Design: Includes multiple pre-test and post-test observations.
      • Ex-post Facto Control Group Design: Individuals choose whether to be in the control or experimental group.
    • Time Series Design: Compares trends in the dependent variable before and after an intervention or event.
    • Selection Bias: Differences in characteristics of experimental and comparison گروهs that influence the outcome.
    • History Effect: External events that influence post-test scores during the experiment.
    • Differential Attrition: Comparison groups become different due to subjects dropping out.
    • Contamination: One group being aware of the other group and being influenced as a result.
    • Expectancies of Experimental Staff: Treatment group changes due to positive expectations of staff.
    • Double-blind Procedure: Neither the subjects nor research staff know who is receiving the treatment.
    • Placebo: A fake treatment used to ensure experiences of experimental and comparison groups are similar.
    • Hawthorne Effect: Treatment group changes due to feeling special from participating in the study.
    • Solomon Four-group Design: Combines pre-test/post-test and post-test only designs.

    Establishing a Causal Relationship

    • Criteria for Establishing Causality:
      • Empirical Association: A relationship between variables.
      • Appropriate Time Order: Variation in the independent variable must occur before the dependent variable.
      • Non-spuriousness: Eliminating the possibility of a third variable influencing the relationship.
    • Improving Understanding of Causal Connections:
      • Mechanism: Explanation of how the independent variable affects the dependent variable.
      • Context: The conditions under which the relationship occurs.

    Random Assignment vs. Random Sampling

    • Random Assignment: Assigning subjects randomly to control and experimental groups.
    • Random Selection: Selecting a sample from a population randomly.

    Ethical Challenges in Experimental Research

    • Deception: Used to make experiments more realistic.
    • Selective Distribution of Benefits: Manipulating benefits received by subjects in the treatment group.

    Survey Research

    • Social Desirability Bias: Tendency to agree with statements to avoid appearing disagreeable.
    • Idiosyncratic Variation: Variation in responses caused by individual reactions to words or ideas in a question.

    Popularity of Survey Research

    • Versatility: Can be used for a wide range of research topics.
    • Efficiency: Low cost and can be conducted quickly.
    • Generalizability: Can sample large populations.

    Improving Survey Questions

    • Avoiding Errors:
      • Poor Measurement: Confusing phrasing, double negatives, double-barreled questions, lack of exhaustive response choices.
      • Nonresponse: Low engagement.
      • Inadequate Sample: Unrepresentative sample.
      • Sampling Error: Differences between the sample and the population.
    • Improving Questions:
      • Filter Questions: Identifying relevant respondents.
      • Skip Patterns: Guiding respondents to appropriate sections.
      • Avoiding Biases: Steering clear of controversial words and phrases.
      • Likert Items: Measuring attitudes using unipolar or bipolar scales.
      • Interpretive Questions: Helping researchers understand responses.
      • Question Order: Influences responses – first question should link to the primary objective.
      • White Space: Use ample white space to make questionnaires appear easy to complete.
      • Translation: Adapt questionnaires for diverse audiences.

    Cover Letter for a Survey

    • Elements:
      • Credible: Establish the purpose of the research.
      • Personalized: Include the respondent's name.
      • Interesting: Highlight engaging aspects of the study.
      • Responsible: Reassure confidentiality and include contact information.

    Survey Design Strengths & Weaknesses

    • Mailed Surveys:
      • Strengths: Versatility, cost effective, can reach geographically dispersed populations.
      • Weaknesses: Low response rates, potential for bias due to nonresponse.
      • Response Rate Improvement: Send brief letter before the survey, ensure it reaches the respondent's hands, include personalized cover letter.
    • Telephone Surveys:
      • Strengths: High response rates, interviewer can clarify questions.
      • Weaknesses: Costly, less versatile than other methods, sample may not be representative.
    • Face-to-face Interviews:
      • Strengths: Highest response rates, ability to gather detailed information, interviewer can observe nonverbal cues.
      • Weaknesses: Most costly, time-consuming, potential for interviewer bias.

    Evaluation Research

    • Process evaluation focuses on understanding how a program is implemented.
    • Impact evaluation assesses whether a program achieved its intended results.
    • Efficiency analysis weighs a program's benefits against its costs.
    • Mixed-methods research combines qualitative and quantitative methods for a more comprehensive understanding.
    • Integrated design uses both methods concurrently with equal importance.
    • Embedded design uses both methods concurrently, but one method takes priority.
    • Staged design applies methods sequentially, with one method prioritized.
    • QUAL (quantitative) and QUAL (qualitative) are used alongside quan (quantitative) and qual (qualitative) to indicate the specific method used in each scenario.
    • Mixed-methods research can enhance measurement validity and generalizability.

    Ethical Challenges in Evaluation Research

    • There are potential ethical challenges in evaluation research.
    • Direct impact on participants and their families requires consideration of human subject concerns.
    • Ethical dilemma in evaluating ongoing programs: it may be unethical to deny program benefits to potential participants.
    • Maintaining confidentiality when data is owned by government agencies or subject to legal proceedings is a concern.
    • Determining an acceptable level of burden imposed on participants is crucial.
    • Questions around the influence of political considerations on research decisions are significant.
    • Ethical implications of sharing findings with various stakeholders.
    • Ethical considerations around the validity of program improvements and the choice of research methods (randomized experiment vs. alternatives).
    • Obtaining parental consent for research on children, which can significantly reduce participation rates.
    • Passive consent (returning the form only if not giving consent) can be a possible solution.

    Research Report Writing

    • Front matter includes the executive summary, abstract, and table of contents.
    • Back matter includes appendices, tables, and research instruments.
    • Plagiarism is presenting work of another person as your own without acknowledgment.
    • Journal Articles focus on answering a specific research question and are reviewed by experts.
    • Applied Research Reports aim to describe a wide range of findings and cater to various audience needs.
    • Key Sections of a Research Report:
      • Introduction: including a literature review and identifying the research gap.
      • Samples and Measures
      • Results
      • Discussion
    • Ethical Standards in Reporting:
      • Honesty in reporting the research process, including any changes made and their reasons.
      • Acknowledging strengths and weaknesses of the research.
      • Interpret findings within the context of prior literature.
      • Making the full research record accessible for further inquiries.
      • Providing a detailed account of the analysis process.
      • Acknowledging research sponsors.

    Phone Surveys

    • Phone surveys may only reach a certain demographic due to the decline of landlines and the prevalence of cell phones.
    • Using callbacks, monetary incentives, letters to non-respondents, and skilled interviewers can effectively increase response rates, but only by small margins.

    Mixed-Mode Surveys

    • Mixed-mode surveys can increase participation rate by combining the strengths of different survey designs.
    • This approach can compensate for the weaknesses of individual survey designs.
    • Mixed Mode surveys can reduce costs by starting with the cheapest method and then investing more resources to improve it.

    Ethical Issues in Survey Research

    • Confidentiality and anonymity: When possible, information should be kept anonymous.
    • Harm to individuals: The research should identify and disclose any potential harm to individuals.

    Qualitative Research

    • Qualitative research differs from quantitative research by:
      • Gathering data that reflects natural behaviour and captures social life as participants experience it.
      • Employing exploratory research questions and inductive reasoning.
      • Examining previously unstudied processes and unanticipated phenomena.
      • Focusing on the social context and interconnections between social phenomena.
      • Prioritizing human subjectivity and the meaning participants attach to phenomena.
      • Utilizing an adaptive research design.
      • Acknowledging the subjective role of the researcher through reflexivity.

    Ethnography

    • Ethnography studies the shared culture of a group of people.
    • Involves immersing oneself in a group over an extended period to develop trust and gain firsthand experience.
    • Aims to describe and understand the natural world, embracing a naturalistic approach.

    Netnography

    • Netnography employs ethnographic methods to study online communities.
    • Can focus on communities whose members are geographically dispersed.

    Participant Observation:

    • Participant observation is a field research method used to observe people during their daily activities.
    • Various roles exist within participant observation:
      • Covert observation: Observing without participating and not disclosing researcher status.
      • Overt observation: Completely observing while acknowledging researcher status.
      • Overt participation: Acknowledging researcher status while actively participating.
      • Complete (covert) participation: Fully engaging in the group's activities without disclosing researcher status.

    Challenges in Field Research Projects

    • Entering the field: Gaining access to a setting can be challenging due to gatekeepers. Researchers should have a strong rationale for why they should be granted access.
    • Developing and maintaining relationships: Researchers need to be mindful of the relationships they build in order to continue observing. Key informants can provide valuable insights.
    • Sampling people and events: Sampling should be informative, even if not representative. A theoretical sample is drawn sequentially, with settings or individuals selected based on their perceived influence.
    • Managing personal dimensions: Researchers must be aware of their influence on the research process and address any potential biases.
    • Taking and analyzing notes: Detailed field notes should be taken to document observations and events.

    Intensive Interviewing

    • Intensive interviewing seeks to understand people's experiences, thoughts, and feelings by using open-ended questions.
    • It involves a flexible structure, guided by the respondent's responses and follow-up questions.
    • Interviews are lengthy, aiming to gather detailed descriptions and insights.
    • Researchers can utilize recorders to minimize distractions and ensure accuracy.
    • Selecting participants for intensive interviewing involves careful consideration, often employing a saturation point method.

    Online Interviews

    • Online interviews offer access to individuals regardless of location and can be conducted synchronously (real-time) or asynchronously (delayed responses).
    • They offer relative anonymity but lack physical cues and presence, limiting the development of rapport.

    Focus Group Research

    • Focus groups involve 5-10 individuals recruited based on shared characteristics with the target population.
    • They aim to uncover unanticipated findings by fostering discussion and exploring hidden meanings.
    • These groups are particularly beneficial for generating hypotheses, developing survey questions, and quickly assessing diverse opinions.

    Ethical Challenges in Qualitative Research

    • Voluntary participation: Participants must have the freedom to choose whether to participate and be informed of their rights.
    • Subject well-being: The research should not cause harm to participants, including emotional distress caused by sensitive information shared.
    • Identity disclosure: Researchers must be transparent about their status, particularly in covert settings.
    • Confidentiality: Researchers should use pseudonyms and remove any identifiable information from reports.
    • Appropriate boundaries: Researchers should avoid over-involvement with participants.
    • Researcher safety: Researchers may encounter unfamiliar or potentially dangerous environments.

    Advantages of Unobtrusive Measures of Behaviour

    • Unobtrusive methods can improve measurement validity by minimizing biases associated with self-reported behaviors.
    • They allow researchers to study past events without the constraints of time, resources, or ethical concerns.
    • They are particularly useful for examining group behavior.

    Sources of Secondary Data

    • Social science surveys and data sets
    • Government agencies
    • Books
    • Experimental reports

    Cautions for Using Secondary Data

    • Researchers may need to adapt their research question to align with the existing data.
    • The data quality can be an issue as it may have been collected to address specific interests.
    • Inconsistencies can arise from data collected across national borders with varying methods.

    Big Data

    • Enormous datasets reflecting human activity are accessible and manageable with modern technology, providing new insights for social scientists.

    Variable-Oriented Research

    • This approach focuses on variables representing aspects of cases and examines their relationships across different groups.

    Data Collection Methods

    • Types of Data: Social media platforms, GPS, internet usage patterns, search engines
    • Purpose: Measure trends and patterns in human behavior, including social trends
    • Potential Issues: Sampling bias, privacy concerns, potential for overestimating trends, internet/social media usage disparities based on class and ethnicity
    • Data Success: Limited information provided on specific success of data collection efforts, likely dependent on specific data sources
    • Missing Data Indication: Not specified in text.
    • Documentation: Limited information provided.
    • Data Consistency: Limited information provided.
    • Big Data Advantages: Vast amounts of data available for analysis, potential to identify trends and patterns that would be difficult to find through traditional methods
    • Big Data Disadvantages: Potential for bias, privacy risks, and ethical concerns.

    Research Methods

    • Types of Historical and Comparative Research:
      • Qualitative and Inductive: Focuses on cases holistically, emphasizes context and relationships between events, uses narrative explanations.
      • Temporal: Examines a series of events that unfold over time in a specific time/place.
      • Holistic and Conjunctural: Emphasizes context and the interconnectedness of events and processes.
    • Challenges with Historical Research: Potential for biased or missing evidence, reconstructing the feelings of individuals involved in past events.
    • Comparative Social Science: Employed for comparing countries, often utilizes quantitative variable-oriented research.
    • Content Analysis: Systematic, objective, quantitative analysis of messages, typically involving text, speech, or visual images.

    Ethical Challenges of Unobtrusive Methods

    • Potential for Plagiarism: Using data from secondary sources without proper citation.
    • Privacy Concerns: Removing potentially identifiable information from databases to avoid exposing individuals (both living and deceased).
    • Government-Provided Information: Potential for inaccurate data due to political and social pressures.
    • Surveillance: Using big data for surveillance, potentially compromising individual privacy.

    Evaluation Research

    • Types of Evaluation Research:
      • Needs Assessment: Evaluates the need for a new program or the ongoing relevance of an existing program.
      • Process Evaluation: Investigates the process of service delivery, also known as formative evaluation when used to improve program design.
      • Impact Analysis/Evaluation: Compares outcomes with and without the program's implementation.
      • Efficiency Analysis: Assesses whether the program benefits outweigh its costs.
    • Evaluation Research Questions:
      • Needs Assessment: Is a new program necessary? Does an existing program still serve a need?
      • Process Evaluation: What are the practices and processes involved in a program's implementation?
      • Impact Analysis/Evaluation: Did the program achieve its intended outcomes?
      • Efficiency Analysis: Does the program's cost justify its benefits?
    • Mixed-Methods Designs: Combines qualitative and quantitative methods to provide a more comprehensive understanding of a program's operation and impact.

    Research Reporting

    • Key Report Sections:
      • Front Matter: Includes an executive summary, abstract, and a table of contents.
      • **Back Matter: ** Contains appendices, tables, and research instruments.
    • Writing Challenges: Ensuring clarity and accessibility for diverse audiences, effective communication of research findings.
    • Elements of Ethical Honesty:
      • Transparency: Honest reporting of research methods and any alterations made throughout the process.
      • Objectivity: Reporting both strengths and limitations of the research.
      • Contextualization: Interpreting findings within the existing body of literature.
      • Accessibility: Making research data available to address potential questions.
      • Process Documentation: Detailing the steps involved in research development and analysis.
      • Sponsor Acknowledgement: Reporting the funding sources for the research project.

    Chapter 1: Science, Society and Social Research

    • Science: A set of methodical, logical and documented approaches to investigating nature and natural processes.
    • Social Science: Utilises scientific methods to explore individuals, societies and social processes.
    • Selective observation: Focusing only on things that align with personal beliefs and preferences.
    • Inaccurate observation: Drawing conclusions from faulty perceptions of reality.
    • Overgeneralization: Assuming something true for a few applies universally.
    • Descriptive research: Defines and describes social phenomena, often using quantitative methods. Focuses on what is happening, and the primary research about a topic.
    • Exploratory research: Aims to understand how people function within a setting, their interpretations of actions, and concerns. Explores “what’s going on here?” using qualitative methods.
    • Explanatory research: Seeks to establish cause-and-effect between social phenomena, with predictions about how one phenomenon changes in response to another.
    • Evaluative research: Examines the impact of programs, policies, or other efforts on social patterns. Combines elements of descriptive, exploratory, and explanatory research.
    • Quantitative methods: Employ numerical data and methods like surveys and experiments.
    • Qualitative methods: Capture social experiences from participants’ perspectives through methods like participant observation, intensive interviewing, and focus groups.
    • Positivism: The belief that an objective reality exists independent of our perception and can be understood through observation, following general laws.
    • Constructivism: Methodological approach questioning the existence of an external reality. Emphasizes examining how different stakeholders within a social setting construct their beliefs.
    • Triangulation: Using multiple methods to study a research question. Also refers to using two or more separate measures of the same variable.

    Chapter 2: The Process and Problems of Social Research

    • Social research question: A question about the social world answered through the collection and analysis of firsthand, verifiable, and empirical data.

    Research Concepts

    • A hypothesis is a tentative explanation of a relationship between two or more variables.
    • A variable is a characteristic that can change.
    • An independent variable is the cause, which leads to a change in the dependent variable.
    • Direction of association refers to the pattern of change between variables, either positive or negative.
    • Inductive research makes generalizations from specific evidence.
    • Deductive research tests a specific prediction based on a general statement.
    • The research circle is a diagram showing the process of researching from theory to data and analysis.
    • Replication involves repeating studies with the same methods to verify results.
    • A theory is a set of propositions about the world.
    • Anomalous findings and serendipitous findings are unexpected patterns in data, which can challenge or expand our understanding.

    Research Designs

    • Cross-sectional research collects data at a single point in time.
    • Longitudinal research collects data at two or more points in time.

    Research Questions

    • A good research question is feasible, socially important, and scientifically relevant.
    • Feasible means it can be completed within the time and resources available.
    • Socially important means it addresses issues important to society.
    • Scientifically relevant means it aims to address gaps in current knowledge.

    The Role of Theory in Research

    • Theory helps increase a research project’s value by providing a framework to understand social patterns.

    Searching and Reviewing Research Literature

    • Research literature is a key resource for social researchers.
    • Start by clearly defining your research question.
    • Identify relevant databases to search.
    • Develop a list of search terms and refine your search.
    • Check titles and abstracts to find relevant articles.

    Types of Social Research Strategies

    • Explanatory research aims to understand cause-and-effect relationships, often using quantitative methods.
    • Exploratory research investigates how people interact and express themselves, often using qualitative methods.
    • Descriptive research provides a snapshot of a phenomenon, using either qualitative or quantitative methods.

    Longitudinal Designs

    • Trend studies compare samples from the same population over time.
    • Panel studies study changes in the same individuals over time.
    • Cohort studies follow a group of individuals who share a common characteristic, such as being born in the same year.

    Standards of Research Validity

    • Measurement validity ensures that measures accurately reflect the concepts they are intended to measure.
    • Generalizability refers to the extent to which findings apply to other groups, settings, or populations.
    • Causal validity refers to the accuracy of a conclusion that A causes B.
    • Authenticity ensures a study accurately reflects the perspectives of participants in a setting.

    Ethical Considerations

    • The Belmont Report outlines three key ethical principles to guide research: respect for persons, beneficence, and justice.
    • Institutional Review Boards (IRBs) review research proposals to ensure ethical treatment of human subjects.

    Conceptualization and Measurement

    • Conceptualization involves defining the meaning of a concept.
    • Operationalization involves defining how to measure a concept.
    • Levels of measurement refer to the mathematical precision of a variable.
    • The four levels of measurement are:
      • Nominal: values differ in name only, such as gender.
      • Ordinal: values are ordered, such as ranking.
      • Interval: values have equal distances between them, such as temperature.
      • Ratio: values have a true zero point, such as height.

    Single Questions and Response Choices

    • Closed-ended questions provide fixed choices for responses.
    • Open-ended questions allow respondents to provide their own answers.

    Phone Surveys

    • Phone surveys can be standardized using computer assisted telephone interviews and interactive voice response survey technology.
    • Uses random digit dialling for selection.
    • Landlines are becoming less common meaning only cell phone interviews may be possible, which could only be representative of certain demographics.
    • Response rates can be increased through callbacks, monetary incentives, letters to non-respondents and skilled interviewers, but this only increases response rates by a factor of 1:10 to 1:5.

    Mixed Mode Surveys

    • Mixed mode surveys can be applied to improve participation rates, by combining different survey modalities.
    • The strengths of one survey design can be used to counter the weaknesses of another.
    • Mixed mode surveys can reduce total costs by starting with the cheapest mode and incrementally improving it through the use of more expensive modes.

    Ethical Issues in Survey Research

    • Surveys should be anonymous whenever possible, to prevent harm or identification of participants.
    • Data should be stored confidentially to ensure the privacy of respondents.
    • Risks to participants should be identified and disclosed prior to participation.

    Qualitative Research

    • Qualitative research focuses on collecting data about natural behaviour, captured as it is experienced by participants.
    • It is exploratory in nature, using inductive reasoning.
    • The focus is on previously unstudied processes and emerging phenomena.
    • It focuses on human subjectivity, the meaning participants attach to phenomena.
    • Research design is adaptive.
    • Research is sensitive to the subjective role of the researcher, demonstrating reflexivity.

    Ethnography

    • Ethnography studies the culture shared by a group of people.
    • Research is naturalistic - aiming to describe and understand the natural world.
    • Researchers immerse themselves in the group for an extended period of time to build trust and gain first-hand experience of the culture.

    Netnography

    • Applies ethnographic methods to the study of online communities.
    • Can be used to study communities whose members are geographically dispersed.

    Participant Observation Roles

    • Covert Observation: Researchers observe without participating, not disclosing they're a researcher. This can impact the actions of other people in the setting and means the researcher cannot take notes or ask questions, making it harder to play the role effectively.
    • Overt Observation: Researchers acknowledge their role but do not participate. This can lead to changes in behaviour of the group being observed, creating reactive effects. Some researchers have found that their presence is eventually ignored by the observed group.
    • Overt Participation: Researchers acknowledge their role and participate in the group. This allows for rapport with group members to be established, while maintaining research goals.
    • Complete (covert) Participation: Researchers act like other members without disclosing their role. This can lead to difficulties taking notes or asking questions, making it hard to successfully play the role.

    Challenges in Field Research

    • Entering the Field: May face difficulty gaining access due to strict gatekeepers.
    • Developing and Maintaining Relationships: Researchers need to manage relationships carefully to ensure they can continue to observe the group. Key informants can prove useful in this process.
    • Sampling People and Events: Researchers should select a critical case, rich in information, for the chosen sample. The sample should be relevant and informative, though not necessarily representative. Theoretical sampling is a process of drawing a sample sequentially.
    • Managing Personal Dimensions: Identifying and dealing with reflexivity. Researchers should be mindful of potential bias that may arise from sharing similarities with the group being studied.

    Field Researcher Notes

    • Researchers should take detailed jottings - abbreviated notes recording highlights of observed events.
    • Jottings should be elaborated upon later in the day, forming descriptive field notes.
    • A daily log should be used to record events that have taken place.

    Intensive Interviewing

    • Intensive interviews are focused on eliciting information about people's experiences, thoughts, and feelings.
    • Open ended questions are used, with no fixed structure to the conversation.
    • Follow-up questions are used, driven by the respondent's input.
    • Interviews can be recorded with little distraction.
    • Carefully consider the selection methods, as participants are rarely selected using random selection.
    • Participants are selected until the saturation point is reached, where interviews no longer provide new information.

    Online Interviews

    • Allows for access to participants regardless of location.
    • Can be synchronous (like an in-person interview) or asynchronous (could lead to disinterest from participants).
    • Offers a degree of anonymity.
    • Non-verbal indicators like body language are lost, and rapport cannot be established in the same way.

    Focus Group Research

    • A qualitative, unstructured method with 5-10 participants recruited who share characteristics with the target population.
    • It aims to provide access to insights, the participants do not usually know each other.
    • Mimics the natural process of forming and expressing opinions, using open-ended questions posed by the researcher.
    • Focus groups emphasize uncovering unanticipated findings and exploring hidden meanings.
    • They can be used to develop hypotheses and survey questions.
    • Can be used to investigate the meaning of survey results and quickly assess the range of opinions on an issue.

    Ethical Challenges in Qualitative Research

    • Voluntary Participation: Subjects must have a clear choice about participating in the research. Process consent can be used to check if participants wish to continue. Rapport may lead to participants revealing sensitive information that the researcher may feel obligated to know.
    • Subject Well-being: Any potential harm to participants should be mitigated. The researcher should be aware of the potential negative feelings that participants might experience about sensitive information being published.
    • Identity Disclosure: In covert research, consent is not meaningful. Netnography can be controversial if researchers join a group without informing members.
    • Confidentiality: Fake names should be used to replace participant names in project reports. All identifying information must be removed. Confidentiality is harder to manage in focus groups, as participants may share sensitive information about other participants.
    • Appropriate Boundaries: Researchers should maintain a distance from the subjects to avoid getting too involved.
    • Researcher Safety: Researchers should be aware of potential danger or unfamiliar situations when working in the field.

    Unobtrusive Methods

    • Data is collected without the knowledge or participation of the individuals or groups that generated the data.
    • Unobtrusive measures are measurements based on physical traces or other data that are collected without the knowledge of the individuals or groups that generated the data.
    • Secondary data analysis uses pre-existing data for different purposes than intended by those who collected the data.
    • Big Data is large data sets reflecting human activity that are accessible in computer readable format.
    • Variable-oriented research focuses attention on specific aspects of cases studied and then examines the relationship between these aspects across groups.

    Advantages of Unobtrusive Measures

    • Improved measurement validity by eliminating bias from subjective self-reports.
    • Allows researchers to study behaviour that has already occurred, but could not be observed due to ethical or financial constraints.

    Sources of Secondary Data

    • Social science surveys and data sets.
    • Government agencies.
    • Books.
    • Experimental reports.

    Cautions for Secondary Data Analysts

    • Researchers may need to shift their research question to fit the secondary data.
    • Data quality is always a concern as data may have been collected for specific group interests, leading to inconsistencies.
    • Research across international borders means that different methodologies could be used, resulting in confusion and inconsistencies.

    Questions to Consider When Using Secondary Data

    • What were the agency or researcher's goals for collecting this data?

    Big Data

    • Big data sources include social media platforms, global positioning systems (GPS), internet usage patterns, and search engines.
    • Big data advantages include a large volume of data availability.
    • Big data disadvantages include potential problems in measurement or sampling, privacy risks, and differences in internet/social media usage between different demographics.

    Historical and Comparative Research Methods

    • Qualitative and inductive: Case-oriented, focuses on cases as a whole, temporal, looks at the related series of events that unfold over time, specific to the time/place studied.
    • Holistic and conjunctural: Concerned with the context and interrelations between different events and processes, uses narrative explanations.
    • Problems with historical research: Documents and evidence may be lost, available evidence may be biased, written records may be biased towards those who were prone to writing, and feelings of individuals involved in past events may be impossible to reconstruct.
    • Comparative social science methods: Used to make comparisons between countries, may use quantitative variable oriented research.

    Content Analysis

    • Content analysis is the systematic, objective, quantitative analysis of message characteristics.
    • It starts with text, speech broadcasts or visual images.
    • Content Analysis develops procedures for coding content.

    Ethical Challenges in Unobtrusive Methods

    • Use of data/information from secondary sources with citation (plagiarism): The information must be appropriately cited to avoid plagiarism.
    • All information that could lead to potential identification of persons dead/alive must be removed: This helps protect the privacy of individuals.
    • When using government-provided information like the census, they could be inaccurate due to social or political pressures: Researchers should be aware of potential biases in government data.
    • Big data may be used for surveillance and can be used to identify individuals: Researchers must consider the ethical implications of using big data for surveillance.

    Evaluation Research

    • Inputs: Resources, raw materials, clients, and staff that go into a program.
    • Program process: The complete treatment or service delivered by the program.
    • Outputs: The services delivered or new products produced by the program process.
    • Outcomes: The impact of the program process on the cases processed.
    • Feedback: Information about service delivery system outputs, outcomes, or operations that can guide program input.
    • Stakeholders: Individuals and groups who have some basis of concern with the program.

    Types of Evaluation Research

    • Needs assessment: Tries to answer questions about the need for a new program or the continued need for an old one.
    • Process evaluation: Investigates the process of service delivery.
    • Impact analysis/evaluation: Compares what happened after the program to what would have happened if the program wasn't there.
    • Efficiency analysis: Identifies whether the program had more benefits than costs.

    Types of Questions Answered by Evaluation Research

    • Needs assessment: Is a new program needed or an old one still required? Is there any need at all?
    • Process evaluation: What actually happens in a social program? Questions regarding a program's implementation.
    • Impact analysis/evaluation: Did the program work? Did it have the intended result?
    • Efficiency analysis: Whatever the programs benefits, does it offset the programs' costs?

    Mixed Methods Designs

    • Integrated design: Both methods are used concurrently and given equal importance.
    • Embedded design: Both methods are used concurrently, but one is given priority.
    • Staged design: Both methods are used in sequence and one is given priority.
    • QUALQUAN: Both methods are given equal priority.
    • QUAL→quan, or qual→QUAN: The secondary method is used after the primary method.
    • QUAL(quan) or QUAN(qual): The secondary method is embedded in the primary method.

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    Description

    This quiz explores the intersection of scientific methods and social research. Discover the common reasoning errors we encounter, and learn about different types of social research, including descriptive, exploratory, explanatory, and evaluation methods. Test your understanding of these concepts and their implications in social science.

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