Science, Hypothesis, Resources & Measurement

• The following notes cover topics such as science methodology, hypothesis formulation, the process of human development, renewable and non-renewable resources, crude petroleum, air pollution, measurement in science, early mathematics in Babylon, Greece and Egypt.

Science Methodology and Hypothesis Formulation

• Science is a structured body of knowledge and a method for gaining insights into the natural and physical world's structure and behavior.
• Science is a human endeavor driven by curiosity and the need to meet material requirements.
• Science operates as a system of questions and answers derived from observation and experiments.
• Pure science aims to understand universe operations, while applied science (technology) applies basic research to practical applications.

Scientific Method and Stages

• Science employs scientific reasoning to solve problems through observation and generalization.
• Observation involves recognizing a problem and gathering relevant, testable information, which can include structures, processes, patterns, or events.
• Forming hypotheses involves guessing the answer to a question, proposing explanations to be tested through experimentation.
• Experimentation tests hypotheses to determine their validity.
• Drawing conclusions involves analyzing experimental results to discover principles; repeated support of a hypothesis leads to theory formation.
• A hypothesis is one possible explanation for an observed event.
• Hypotheses start with observations.
• The validity of a hypothesis is tested by systematically forming and rejecting alternative explanations.
• Hypotheses are usually tested by creating a prediction based on the hypothesis and checking if accurate.
• Hypotheses are typically tested one at a time, and are accepted when they explain existing facts, allow logical deductions, and align with confirmed laws.
• Hypotheses should be able to account for a larger range of facts.
• Hypothesis development begins with a problem statement, clarifying assumptions, and providing rationale.
• Scientific facts are generalizations about consistently repeated events or phenomena.
• Scientific facts are based on observations obtained directly or indirectly by the senses.
• All facts relating to a particular problem are called data.
• Scientific facts must be testable and other scientists must be able repeat them, to verify them.
• An experiment tests a hypothesis.
• Experiments involve aims, methods, observations, and data collection, leading to discussions and conclusions.
• Conclusion statements of experiments should confirm achievement of the objectives.

The Process of Man's Development

• Man is the latest and most evolved organism in the evolutionary process.
• Information on human evolution comes from fossil studies.
• Palacoanthropologists can distinguish 5 hominidae development stages.
• Ramapithecus, discovered in India, China, and Africa (12-14 million years ago), shows hominid teeth shapes and bipedal potential.
• Australopithecus, or 'southern ape man', marks another stage found in South Africa.
• Australopithecus had omnivorous teeth, a brain comparable to larger apes, and the ability to make primitive tools.
• Australopithecus species include afarensis, africanus, and robustus, with afarensis as a common ancestor.
• Approximately 2 million years ago, brain enlargement led to the genus Homo, arising from Australopithecus, and being the first human.
• Hominids are members of the Hominidae family.
• Homo habilis, an extinct species, may be the earliest humans and first tool users.
• Homo habilis fossils/tools were found in Tanzania and Africa (1.6-1.9 million years ago).
• Homo habilis had fully developed human characteristics.
• Homo habilis had partially developed opposable thumb.
• Homo erectus, appearing 1.6 million years ago, is a direct ancestor to Homo sapiens.
• Homo erectus was the first to control and use fire and made superior tools from stone flakes.
• Homo erectus (upright man) thigh bone structure is same as modern humans.
• Peking man from China and Java man from Indonesia are also part of this group.
• Homo sapiens appeared aproximately 400,000-200,000 years ago, with their brain increased to modern day size.
• Homo sapiens split into Neanderthals and modern Homo sapiens sapiens.
• Homo sapiens neanderthalensis were short, stocky, made stone tools and had community spirits.
• Modern Homo sapiens appeared 30,000-40,000 years ago and have a skull structure similar to modern people.
• Modern Homo sapiens responsible for the extinction of large mammals, developed cooperative hunting due to language development.
• Homo sapiens lived in small groups, with the men hunting while the women remained to look after the family.
• Tool technology advanced, populations increased, social activities were grouped in dwellings, and art appeared during the Upper Paleolithic period.

Invention and Development

• Homo sapiens sapiens populations had sophisticated communication and social structures that eventually allowed them to develop manual dexterity.
• Cultural evolution correlates with characteristics like concentration and aggregation of information.
• Higher concentrations of individuals, plus verbal communication help to accelerate the dissemination of new ideas.
• During the Stone Age, stone was a major tool to make weapons for cutting.
• Tool fabrication is regarded as a sign of the achievement of human status.
• Around 30,000 BC, the Old Stone Age transitioned to the Upper Paleolithic period (30,000-10,000 BC) with Homo habilis dominating.
• Homo habilis a closely related to humans.
• The Upper Paleolithic culture had lots of better tools and equipment.
• There were many tools including bone needles, fishhooks, harpoons, and arrow heads.
• The Upper Paleolithic man had buttons made of bone and horn; he created needles to sew together.
• Middle Stone Age (Mesolithic) includes chipped tools.
• Mesolithic hunter was efficient and able to exploit the natural world.
• New Stone Age (Neolithic) is the final stage of cultural evolution and development.
• The Neolithic age is characterized by polished stone tools also, settlement in permanent villages.
• Various technologies and crafts such as pottery, weaving, and boat construction emerged during this time.
• Neolithic people constructed buildings from mud and had the time to pursue specialized tasks.
• Discoveries of metals which lead to people being able to combine copper and tin to make bronze which were later used to make tools/ weapons

Renewable and Non-Renewable Resources

• Lecture defines chemical terms and studies chemistry's role in daily life, also the differences between types of materials studies
• The lecture teaches to write the symbols of regular elements, recognize formular chemical compounds, and name examples of renewable and non-renewable resources.
• Matter of the universe consists of limited substances that are elements, organisms are integral to universe that include hydrogen, carbon, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus and sulphur.
• The basic unit of a chemical substance is the atom.
• A small indivisible part of an element is the atom.
• There are three states in which matter can exist: solid, liquid and gas.
• An element cannot be broken down into simpler substances.
• An atom's core (nucleus) comprises protons/neutrons with orbiting electrons.
• Proton has a positive charge; neutron has no charge; electron has negative charge.
• The number of protons defines the number of electrons for chemical activity.
• The atomic number determines the chemical character of the atom.
• The sum of protons/neutrons defines the mass number.
• Compounds form as elements chemically combine.
• Renewable resources such as sunlight, agricultural yields and biological organisms can be replaced in a relatively short time.
• Renewable resources can be broadly classified include the sun, agricultural products and other biological organisms
• Non-renewable (exhaustible) resources, like minerals and fossil fuels, exist in limited amounts.
• Non-renewable resources include stone, uranium, tin, iron ores, coal, and oil deposits.
• Wastes from a product are known as resources depletion.
• Recycling processes of waste products to form valuable materials.
• The life of resources can be prolonged by recycling and substitution.
• Several factors help to help prolong the life of non-renewable resources.

Crude Petroleum

• Crude petroleum is viscous, foul-smelling liquid mostly made of natural gas plus crude oil.
• It is is formed by marine organisms that collected over million of years in the sea.
• Petroleum has the largest source of organic compounds to be used for various products.
• Petroleum involves prospecting, pumping, transporting to fractionating petroleum in refining.
• Petroleum deposits mostly come from Oguata, Nigeria, Warri, Port Harcourt, and Eket.
• Refining petroleum produces gasoline, kerosene, diesel, and lubricating oils through separation, purification, and conversion.
• Refining uses fractional distillation in places such as Kaduna, Portharcourt, and Warri.
• Distillation towers separate crude oil into fractions by boiling points; sulfur removal is required, making nitric/sulfuric acid.
• Cracking is used to yield the increase amount needed to make petrol.
• Catalytic cracking occur at about 500°C but at atmospheric pressure using a mixture of oxides.
• Thermal cracking is carried out at high temperature by pressure.
• Natural gas (fraction) is mainly made of hydrocarbons from ethane, methane to butane, but are usually burnt as fuel
• Gasoline (petrol) (fraction)-important for motor vehicles; consists of hydrocarbon also, with the molecule including stains and paints.
• Gasoline quality is measured by an octane number (0-100); high ratings are important for its fuel.
• Kerosene (fraction) is important also, it mainly fuels engine.
• Asphalt and Bitumen are solid product mostly used for concrete, but usually for roofs.

Air and Pollution

• The lecture talks about composition of air, how it is polluted, and danger of how it will create environment.
• Factors such as nature, water, land, and air is required for animals and the survival of plant.
• Pollution refers to the alteration of air by addition of polluting substances with harmful effects.
• Clean/ dry air is made of volumes from nitrogen levels.Oxygen, carbon dioxide, and rare gases.
• Carbon dioxide is removed by plants, and the cycle completes by animal breath
• Air composition keeps constant as long as there are natural events to help to keep It safe, such as air, animal, respiration, and volcanic events.
• Pollutions can include carbon dioxide, nitrogen, sulphur dioxide, hydrocarbons and dioxide.
• Western countries such as The U.S.A has air polluted by automobile and gas and sulphur dioxide in its air.
• Acid rain results from sulphur dioxide pollution
• Sulphur dioxide is is poisonness that is in coal and pe troleum.
• The processes includes: burning of acid in power stations, smelting ores, high sulphur content.
• Area of high levels of industry contain rain, for example, acid rain.
• The effect of sulphur can be minimized by converting sulphur dioxide to dioxide, etc.
• A famous type of atmospheric of pollution is smog (smoke fog), a weather.
• NO are in tropical places that contain sun, it will start the combination of nitrogen and oxygen due to heat.
• Carbon can come from combustion or incomplete automobiles; its purpose is to cause resplratory problems.
• Main pollutants include lead, silica, heavy water and arsenic oxides.
• An increase in levels of Co2 in air can cause dispersion heat radiation caused by particles. The light will then begin to pass the co2.
• Carbon doixide is transferred to fight for the wave lengths.

Greenhouse Effect and Ozone Layer Depletion

• As surface cols its in fare red energy is trapped by carbon doixide and released across the earth this affect cause global temperature may also increase by 0.5%.
• The ozone layer is the upper area to protect ultraviolet rays. Ultraviolet radiation is caused by many factors and will hurt skin
• Many gases and gases has resulted to not have ozone effects.

Measurement in Science

• Measurement is to find a particular size, and a process to give a quantity.
• The mass of the body of 2 is the body of 2.kg.
• Physical quantities are the use of physical phenomenon in the quantity by depend.
• In the lecture, efforts from various units are important for them; the SI units are required, for example, for how these quantities will depend on a calculation.
• At the lecture, it was found ways to see the accuracy of various things: Micrometer and meter rule.
• Weight and mass are the constancy.
• A common unit is the system international.
• Many small tools are symbols use symbols mostly because of their name and what they represent.
• Three quantities is considered to be the first physics which length, Time.
• Length and time, there was also amount to measure and electricity.