Russian Revolution and Totalitarianism

Russian Revolution, Interwar Period, and Totalitarianism

The Russian Revolution

• Russia was ruled by the Romanov dynasty for centuries, maintaining political absolutism when it was virtually nonexistent in Europe
• The Orthodox Church was a key ideological pillar of the regime

Tsarist Russia

• Russia exhibited stark contrasts with large cities penetrated by capitalism and liberalism, alongside vast territories with outdated agricultural practices
• Its economy was among the most backward globally
• Opposition to Tsarism grew among the peasantry from the late 19th century, with anarchism advocating peasant revolution and land socialization
• The Socialist Revolutionary Party emerged in industrial cities, supported by peasants and social democrats
• Marxist ideas spread in cities
• In 1898, the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party was founded, led by Lenin
• The party split in the early 20th century into Bolsheviks (majority), who sought socialist revolution by seizing power, and Mensheviks (minority), advocating a democratic-bourgeois revolution
• A peaceful demonstration at the Tsar's Winter Palace on January 9, 1905 ("Bloody Sunday") was violently suppressed, triggering a series of protests, mutinies, and strikes
• The Tsar conceded to some demands, but this event was a prelude to the October Revolution of 1917

February Revolution of 1917: The Fall of Tsarism

• The revolutionary events of 1905 exposed the vulnerability of the Tsarist system
• Russia's involvement in World War I alongside England and France strained its resources due to poor preparation, inadequate equipment, and logistical challenges
• This led to shortages, inflation, and widespread discontent among civilians and military personnel
• A general strike occurred in Saint Petersburg in 1916, which, combined with casualties from government repression, was exploited by soviets and Bolsheviks to organize a revolution
• On February 23, 1917, protests erupted in Petrograd, demanding an end to the war and better living conditions
• The Tsar and government refused to withdraw from the war, prompting the Tsar to abdicate under pressure from the military and political parties
• A provisional government was formed, led by Kerensky
• Lenin returned from exile in Switzerland and intensified the conflict, demanding immediate withdrawal from the war and advocating the soviets seize power through insurrection, summarized by the slogan "All power to the soviets!"

October Revolution of 1917

• The October Revolution transformed the Tsarist Empire into the world's first socialist state
• The decisive action was the storming of the Winter Palace in Petrograd on October 25, 1917
• Armed masses, supported by soviets, factory committees, and Bolsheviks, completed the revolution, with Lenin emerging as the undisputed leader
• The Bolshevik party was the center of power
• After the convened elections that formed a Constituent Assembly yielded a minority, it was dissolved
• The government of the new Soviet Russia was formed by a Council of People's Commissars, presided over by Lenin

First Measures

• The new government implemented revolutionary measures, expropriating land from the Crown, Church, and nobility and redistributing it to peasants
• Diverse nations within the empire were grouped into republics aligned with Russia, though their right to self-determination was recognized only nominally
• Worker control over enterprises and nationalization of banks were established
• Russia withdrew from World War I as promised by Lenin, signing the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk with Germany, resulting in significant territorial losses

Civil War and War Communism

• The revolution succeeded in much of the Empire, but opponents of the revolutionary regime formed the White Army
• The Bolsheviks, led by Trotsky, organized the Red Army, with political commissars ensuring ideological commitment and discipline
• War Communism was implemented to overcome challenges from the civil war, economic crisis, and foreign aggression
• Amidst the White Army's pressure, the Bolsheviks executed the Tsar and his family in July 1918
• By 1921, the Red Army was victorious in Ukraine, concluding the three-year civil war and shaping the new state

The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics

• The USSR had two distinct governments that presented themselves as continuous
• The first government, led by Lenin from 1921 to 1924, concentrated power and established the USSR to integrate governments loyal to the regime under a liberal state framework
• The New Economic Policy (NEP), a program combining communist and capitalist elements, aimed to revitalize the war-torn Russian economy

The Interwar Period

The United States and the "Roaring Twenties"

• Technological innovation and productive transformation drove expansion in the United States
• The use of appliances like telephones, radios, and refrigerators became widespread
• Automotives were the key industry
• Skyscraper construction in cities like New York, Chicago, Detroit, and Los Angeles, which began in the late 19th century, stimulated employment
• The period from 1921 to 1929 was among the most prosperous in American history
• The growth was not as positive as appeared, based on imbalances and extravagant consumerism that caused stagnation

The Crash of 1929 and the Great Depression

• On October 24, 1929, a rush to sell stocks occurred, transforming into "Black Thursday"
• Panic became widespread, leading to plummeting stock prices and financial ruin for many inexperienced investors
• October 29, "Black Tuesday," saw banks demand repayment of loans used to purchase stocks, forcing sales at any price to cover debts
• The New York Stock Exchange crash triggered an unprecedented economic recession, leading to social, political, moral, and ideological repercussions that challenged the prevailing liberal model
• Personal tragedies became common
• Two factors influenced the recession in the United States: a lack of monetary resources to meet debt payments (liquidity crisis) and a decline in consumer spending due to fears of economic hardship
• Widespread bankruptcies led to a surge in unemployment worldwide, causing hardships for individuals and families

The Great Depression

• The Great Depression was a global economic crisis that began in 1929 and lasted through the 1930s, devastating the United States
• It is considered the worst economic crisis of the 20th century

Causes of the Great Depression

• The crisis began with the collapse of the New York Stock Exchange in October 1929, known as Black Tuesday
• The collapse resulted from speculative investing, where many investors bought inflated stocks using borrowed money
• Extensive industrial and agricultural overproduction led to price declines and difficulties for farmers and manufacturers
• Economic inequality favored the upper classes, limiting the consumer capacity of most of the population
• When financial markets collapsed, many lost everything due to a lack of savings or safety nets
• The United States banking system was fragile, with many small, poorly regulated banks
• The stock market collapse caused bank failures, leading to the loss of savings for millions
• The US government increased tariffs on foreign goods, triggering retaliatory measures that reduced international trade and worsened the economic situation

Consequences of the Great Depression

• Unemployment in the US rose to 25%
• Millions lost their jobs, homes, and fell into poverty
• Thousands of banks collapsed, resulting in the loss of savings for depositors
• The Great Depression deeply impacted most industrialized nations, as the decline in international trade and the debt from World War I exacerbated conditions in Europe and worldwide

Politics for Economic Recovery

• Two major proposals addressed the economic situation
• Economist John Maynard Keynes challenged classical economic policies
• He proposed state intervention and increased government spending, particularly on public works, to stimulate demand and employment, offsetting decreased private investment
• Most governments were skeptical of state intervention
• The New Deal in the United States aimed at economic recovery through strong state intervention in the economy
• Though contradictory, the plan curbed the depression and increased the purchasing power of farmers, workers, and the unemployed

The New Deal

• The New Deal was a set of policies and programs implemented by US President Franklin D. Roosevelt to combat the effects of the Great Depression and revive the US economy
• Roosevelt and his administration focused on the "three Rs": relief, recovery, and reform
• Relief provided immediate assistance to the unemployed and needy
• Recovery revitalized the economy and created jobs to reduce unemployment
• Reform established lasting changes to prevent economic depressions

Principal Programs and Policies of the New Deal

• Job creation in public nature areas
• Job creation for public infrastructure projects (roads, schools, etc.)
• Introduction of social security system for pensions/unemployment
• Paying farmers to reduce production, increasing the cost of farm products
• Insuring bank deposits against bank failure, restoring confidence to banks
• Revitalizing the industry to provide work standards, minimum wages, and working conditions

The Impact of the New Deal

• Many New Deal programs provided employment and improved infrastructure
• Enduring reforms transformed the US economic and financial system, including social security and banking regulaations
• Opinions over the New Deal where divisive
• Conservatives thought it overstepped its boundaries while others insisted it didn't go far enough in terms of resource redistribution
• Roosevelt's New Deal sought immediate relief and systemic reform to prevent future crises
• Did not completely resolve economic crisis from the Great Depression (resolved by the Second World War), but changed the relationship between government and American economy

Totalitarianism

• The end of World War I reshaped the political map of Europe and attempted to rebuild the international order
• The crash of 1929 brought about an economic and moral crisis that impacted the world, especially the United States and Europe
• Socialist revolution in Russia inspired proletarian movements across Europe to seek their own revolutions as a response to the crisis
• Fear of communism and the desire for social class confrontation led to Europe seeking security, promoting authoritarianism, nationalism, and political polarization
• The rise of totalitarian parties across Europe necessitated identifying shared characteristics
• Characteristics of Totalitarian Regimes
• Total control through a charismatic regime and a leader that exacts blind obedience while denying civil liberties, and all other political parties
• Control through society and the economy, proclaimed anticapitalist and anticommunist. Society controlled via propaganda, media censorship and indoctrination through education
• The concept of nationalism to instill a sense of a great nation and homeland
• Using militarism to create instruments of power and defense
• Instilling faith in citizens and subjects through propaganda
• The supremacy of party members over citizens

Fascist Italy

• The causes of the rise of fascism in Italy mirrored those across Europe which were a generalized discontent and revanchist feelings regarding the Treaty of Versailles that led to economic crisis

Nazi Germany

• Benito Mussolini founded the National Fascist Party in 1921, supported by paramilitary groups known as the Blackshirts
• Mussolini gained support from large landowners through the suppression of labor movements, as well as the Church and the monarchy

The End of the Weimar Republic

• After Germany's defeat in World War I and the abdication of the Kaiser, the Weimar Republic was established to address the crisis facing the country
• However, the young republic struggled to create a stable political system and was overwhelmed by the rise of Nazism, facing insurrectionary movements from both the left and right
• The economic situation was challenging due to war debts and reparations, leading to inflation, currency depreciation, and business closures
• By 1923, Germany defaulted on its debt, leading to France occupying the Ruhr mining region to exploit its resources

The Rise of Nazism

• Adolf Hitler founded the National Socialist German Workers' Party (Nazi Party) in 1920, a radical, anti-Semitic, and racist group with a paramilitary wing called the SA (Storm Troopers)
• Hitler was jailed in 1923 after a failed coup attempt (the Munich Putsch)
• He wrote Mein Kampf in prison, expressing contempt for liberal democracy, communism, and Jews(enemies of Germany)
• Upon his release, he created his own paramilitary force, the SS (Protection Squad)
• The Nazi Party's electoral success stemmed from support among the middle class, impoverished farmers, and desperate workers after the 1929 crisis
• In the November 1932 elections, the Nazi Party won 196 seats in parliament, while the Communist Party won 100 seats
• Conservative forces, alarmed by communist influence, aligned with the Nazis
• President Hindenburg appointed Hitler as chancellor in January 1933 and authorized him to dissolve parliament and call for new elections
• With only 33% of the vote share in the November 1932 elections, the Nazi Party began building a totalitarian state

Hitler's Government

• Freedoms of press and assembly were abolished
• Opponents faced persecution, and the SA spread terror among the population
• These actions eventually led to a dictatorial regime, leading to one the deadliest dictatorships in human history
• On February 27, 1933, the Reichstag fire occurred, blamed on communists
• This provided a pretext for suspending individual liberties, suppressing judicial oversight of detentions, and reinstating the death penalty
• Upon Hindenburg's death, Hitler declared himself Führer (leader) and chancellor, consolidating all power
• The first concentration camps opened in 1933, growing number to 50 by 1934
• These camps were sites of forced labor and death for many prisoners
• In the Night of the Long Knives (1934), a political purge eliminated the SA leadership, including General Röhm, consolidating Hitler's control
• The government of Hitler decreed the cessation of political parties with the exception party(The National Socialists party) and the socialist union
• The German state was operated by devoted persons of leadership, competing over influence politically

The Dictatorship of Stalin

• Lenin's successor, Stalin, gained power after a series of struggles and ruled from 1927 to 1953
• He established a highly repressive regime, using purges and created cooperative farms managed by the state
• Big efforts were made in metal working, armaments and chemical studies
• Industries were under state control
• Stalin managed the economy through goals set in 5 year plans
• Stalin turned the USSR into one of the most potent military and economic powers in the world
• More than the terrible actions of the Nazis, Stalin took part in genocides requiring acknowledgement
• One is of the holodomor(death of hunger in Ukrainian), called the Holodomor massacre, was a genocide inflicted on the Ukraine area orchestrated by the Stalin regime during 1932-1933
• In the 1930s, Stalin changed his agenda for the USSR to transform its infrastructure by creating state run collective agriculture, seized from soviets alongside machines and plants
• Starvation was caused due to political motives, preventing movements and resistance within the communist government and preventing Ukrainian State Independence
• The government forbade the trade of agriculture in the Ukraine, resulting in an embargo on food sources
• The consequences for those who disregarded the order was 10 years in prision
• 14 million people were affected during the 17 month period