Russian Foreign Policy

• The following are concise study notes on Russian foreign policy

International Organizations & Treaties

• CIS (Commonwealth of Independent States) maintains economic and political ties between former Soviet republics after the USSR's collapse.
• SCO (Shanghai Cooperation Organization) is a China-Russia-led alliance countering NATO influence.
• INF (Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces) Treaty was a 1987 U.S.-Soviet arms agreement banning intermediate-range missiles that was abandoned in 2019.
• CSTO (Collective Security Treaty Organization) is a Russia-led military alliance among former Soviet States as a counter to NATO.
• START I & START II (Strategic Arms Reduction Treaties) are U.S.-Russia agreements that occurred in the 1990s to reduce nuclear arsenals.
• New START is the last remaining U.S.-Russia arms control treaty, limiting nuclear warheads.
• Budapest Memorandum is a 1994 agreement where Ukraine relinquished nuclear weapons for security assurances from Russia, the U.S., and the UK that was then violated by Russia in 2014.

Political & Ideological Groups

• Eurasianists believe Russia should lead a Eurasian bloc instead of aligning with the West.
• Atlanticists favor cooperation with Western Europe and the U.S.
• Liberals favor democracy, market reforms, and integration with the West.
• Realists prioritize national security and power balance over ideology.
• Great Power Activists support Russia's role as a dominant global power.
• Nationalists view Russia as a unique civilization that must resist Western influence.
• Assertivists favor aggressive foreign policy, including military intervention.

Key Figures in Russian Foreign Policy

• Kozyrev was Russia's first post-Soviet foreign minister in the 1990s and was pro-Western liberal.
• Zhirinovsky is a Russian ultranationalist politician who holds anti-Western expansionist views.
• Yavlinsky is a Russian liberal economist and politician who opposes Putin's authoritarianism.
• Gorchakov was a 19th-century Russian diplomat known for balancing Russia's global role.
• Ivanov (Igor) was a Russian foreign minister from 1998-2004 and a realist diplomat.
• Primakov was a Russian PM and foreign minister who developed Russia's modern great-power strategy.
• Lavrov is a long-time Russian foreign minister and pragmatic realist.

Marxist-Leninist & Soviet Terms

• Lenin founded the Soviet Union and led the Bolshevik Revolution.
• Stalin was a Soviet dictator from 1924-1953 and expanded USSR's global influence.
• Scientific Socialism is a Marxist theory that socialism follows historical laws of development.
• Marxism-Leninism is the USSR's official ideology, blending Marxist economics with Leninist political theory.
• Stalinism is Stalin's authoritarian rule, emphasizing industrialization and military expansion.
• Proletariat refers to the working-class revolutionary force in Marxist theory.
• Bourgeoisie refers to the capitalist ruling class, viewed as exploiters in Marxism.
• International Class Struggle is the global fight between capitalists and workers.
• Proletarian Internationalism is the idea that socialism must spread worldwide.
• Westernizers were Russian reformers advocating Western-style modernization.
• Slavophiles were Russian thinkers who rejected Western influence, emphasizing Orthodox and Slavic traditions.

Historical Events & Treaties

• Genghis Khan & Golden Horde were Mongol rulers who dominated Russia for centuries, shaping Russian views on authoritarianism.
• Kto-Kogo ("Who Whom") is Lenin's phrase meaning "who will defeat whom?", describing capitalism vs. socialism.
• Brest-Litovsk Treaty (1918) ended Russia's participation in WWI at a high territorial cost.
• New Economic Policy (NEP) was Lenin's partial return to capitalism in the 1920s to revive the economy.
• Comintern was a Soviet organization promoting global communist revolutions.
• Socialism in One Country refers to Stalin's idea that the USSR should develop socialism domestically before spreading it.
• Nazi-Soviet Pact (Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact) was a 1939 non-aggression pact secretly dividing Eastern Europe between the USSR and Nazi Germany.

Post-Soviet Russia & Foreign Policy

• Business Oligarchs were wealthy businessmen who controlled post-Soviet Russia's economy.
• Orange Revolution was a 2004 event of Ukrainian protests against Russian-backed election fraud.
• Yeltsin was the first president of Russia (1991-99) who favored economic liberalization.
• Putin is the current Russian President. He promotes nationalism and strong state control.
• Medvedev was the Russian president from 2008-2012 and briefly promoted modernization.
• EEU (Eurasian Economic Union) is a Russian-led economic bloc countering the EU.
• BRICS is an economic alliance of Brazil, Russia, India, China, and South Africa. Tsars were Russian monarchs before 1917.

Geopolitical Regions & Conflicts

• Crimean War (1853-56) involved Russia vs. Britain, France, and the Ottomans, further shaping Russia's view of Western hostility.
• Mongol Yoke was Mongol rule over Russia from the 13th-15th centuries which contributed to Russia's authoritarian traditions.
• Napoleon's Invasion (1812) strengthened Russian nationalism and military focus.
• Color Revolutions refer to pro-democracy uprisings in ex-Soviet states, opposed by Russia.
• Near Abroad is a term for former Soviet republics, key to Russian foreign policy.
• Baltic States (Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania) are former Soviet republics and now NATO members.
• Central Asia is a former Soviet region, key for Russia's economic and security influence.
• Caucasus is a region full of ethnic conflicts (e.g., Chechnya, Georgia wars).
• Crimea was annexed by Russia in 2014.

Russian Political Concepts

• Surkov was Putin's key strategist who developed Russia's “managed democracy.”
• Managed Democracy refers to elections that exist but are controlled by the state.
• Sovereign Democracy is Russia's model of democracy, emphasizing national sovereignty.
• Kuriles are disputed islands between Russia and Japan.
• Shock Therapy refers to rapid transition from socialism to capitalism in the 1990s.
• Chechnya is the site of two wars between Russia and separatist rebels.
• Partnership for Peace is a NATO program offering cooperation to non-member states.
• Marshall Plan refers to U.S. aid to Europe after WWII, which was seen by the USSR as anti-Soviet.
• Pragmatists favor practical, interest-driven foreign policy.

Fundamental Beliefs of Russia's Five Foreign Policy Tendencies Overview

• Russian foreign policy is shaped by Liberals, Nationalists, Great Power Activists, Realists, and Assertivists. Each possesses their own views on Russia’s role in the world, military intervention, the importance of sovereignty, and relations with the West.
• Liberals advocate for democratic governance, economic integration with the West, and diplomatic solutions. They gained most influence in the 1990s under Boris Yeltsin.
• Nationalists emphasize Russia's unique identity, military strength, and opposition to Western influence. Their influence resurged under Putin, especially post-2014.
• Great Power Activists focus on Russia's legacy as a global force, advocating strategic partnerships while staying autonomous from Western institutions.
• Realists prioritize state security, balance of power, and practical diplomacy. They cooperate with the West when required but prevent foreign intervention in Russia's sphere.
• Assertivists actively protect Russian sovereignty, supporting military intervention to protect Russian-speaking groups and counter NATO. They support invasions like those in Georgia 2008, and Ukraine, 2014, 2022.
• Views on the West differ per group. Liberals see it as a partner, Nationalists and Assertivists see it as a threat, Great Power Activists and Realists prefer strategic autonomy.
• Alliances also differ per group. Liberals favor the U.S. and EU, Nationalists & Assertivists favor China, Iran, and anti-Western regimes, while Great Power Activists & Realists favor strategic partners like India and the post-Soviet space.
• Action also differ per group. Liberals pursue diplomacy, human rights, and free markets, Nationalists & Assertivists want military expansion, state control, and information warfare, Great Power Activists want Eurasian integration and energy diplomacy, and Realists seek military strength with diplomatic flexibility.

Russian Views on 9/11 and its Aftermath

• Liberals framed 9/11 as a global instability due to terrorism calling for joint counterterrorism efforts with the U.S.
• Nationalists blamed the US for 9/11 due to its Middle Eastern foreign policy.
• Great Power Activists saw 9/11 as an opportunity to strengthen Russia’s counterterrorism legitimacy, in Chechnya.
• Realists, recognized the global threat of terrorism but remained skeptical of full cooperation with the U.S.
• Assertivists believed the attacks proved that military force is necessary to maintain order.
• While Russia supported U.S. intervention in Afghanistan they later opposed the Iraq War.
• The Siloviki then used 9/11 to justify crackdowns on Chechen separatists, branding them as part of a global terrorist network.

Russian Reactions to the U.S. Invasion of Iraq (2003)

• Liberals opposed the invasion calling it a reckless use of force without UN approval.
• Nationalists & Great Power Activists framed the invasion as American imperialism, using it as evidence of U.S. hypocrisy regarding sovereignty violation.
• Realists criticized the war, viewing it as destabilizing that could weaken American influence.
• Assertivists saw the war as proof that the West does not respect international law.
• These views emerged because the war was then unpopular in Russia.

Russian Views on NATO Expansion

• Liberals want to engage diplomatically with NATO, advocating security cooperation over military confrontation.
• Nationalists & Assertivists view NATO expansion as a direct security threat, interpreting it as an effort to encircle and weaken Russia.
• Great Power Activists & Realists argued that NATO's eastward push violated post-Cold War agreements to justify Russian countermeasures.
• In 2008, Russia invaded Georgia to prevent NATO's expansion into its "near abroad”. In 2014, Russia annexed Crimea after Ukraine moved toward NATO membership. Russia increased military build-up along NATO borders and deepened their ties with China as a counterweight.

Russian Views on Color Revolutions

• Liberals supported the democratic movements, viewing them as organic pro-democracy uprisings.
• Nationalists & Assertivists viewed the movements as CIA-backed coups aimed at weakening Russian influence.
• Great Power Activists & Realists believed Russia must quash these revolutions to maintain their influence over former Soviet states.
• Russia used propaganda, election interference, and military force to counter actions in Belarus (2020), Georgia (2003), and Ukraine (2004, 2014).

Views on Arms Control

• Liberals support the INF, and START I & II treaties for global security.
• Nationalists & Great Power Activists view the treaties as Western tricks limiting Russia's power.
• Realists support treaties as long as they don't weaken Russia's military capabilities.
• Assertivists oppose treaties that restrict nuclear force expansion.
• Russia withdrew from the INF Treaty in 2019 because of U.S. missile defense concerns but supports New START as long as it maintains strategic parity.

Russian Views on NATO Missile Defense in Eastern Europe

• Liberals prefer negotiation over conflict.
• Nationalists & Great Power Activists view NATO's missile defense in Eastern Europe as a direct threat to Russian sovereignty.
• Realists see it as a strategic competition.
• Assertivists consider it a military provocation that justifies Russian countermeasures.
• Russia deployed Iskander missiles in Kaliningrad threatening to exit arms control treaties if NATO persists.

Russian Justifications for Military Interventions

• Liberals opposed military actions in Georgia, Ukraine, and Crimea, citing international law.
• Nationalists & Assertivists supported all the interventions to protect ethnic Russians and their influence.
• Great Power Activists & Realists argued interventions were needed to prevent Western encroachment.
• Russia’s major actions include Russia’s full scale invasion of Ukraine in 2022, their annexation of Crimea in 2014, and their invasion of Georgia in 2008.

Major Invasions of Russia & Their Impact

• Invasions by the Mongols from the 13th-15th centuries left a legacy of authoritarian rule.
• Napoleon in 1812 reinforced Russia's resilience.
• Nazi Germany (1941-45, WWII) caused lasting paranoia around Western betrayal and military preparedness.
• These invasions have shaped Russia's geopolitical thinking, reinforcing distrust of the West and causing a belief in buffer zones for security.

Marxism-Leninism and Soviet Foreign Policy

• Marxism-Leninism had many effects on a soviet states foreign policy.
• The soviet support for abroad communist movements was justified by class struggle.
• The soviet duty to aid workers' revolutions across the world, which was proletarian internationalism, had an effect on the states approach.
• Anti-imperialism then framed the USSR as the prominent leader of all anti-colonial movements.
• There was an impact on the relations, as socialism vs. capitalism was a zero-sum game.
• The soviet states foreign policies had an influence that could be felt much later, up until the modern day.
• An anti-western rhetoric continues, reminiscent of soviet approaches, framing things like NATO as a prominent threat.
• Centralization mirrors the tactics put into place by the soviet-controlled economy.

Proletarian Internationalism vs. Socialism in One Country

• Proletarian internationalism is the idea that socialism could not remain in the confines of its own country, and should be spread across nations by revolution
• The soviet state used this mindset to justify any and all movements taking place, such as left-wing uprisings in China (1920s-30s).
• Socialism in one country is an idea under Stalin, which prioritizes internal economic and political expansion before external expansion.
• One example of this in the real-world, is the USSR avoiding the support of Mao's communist party in China in the year 1927.

Economic Interest Groups in Post-Soviet Russia

• A few different economic interest groups have been seen to shape all post-soviet relations.
• Gazprom has been a key player in the energy sector, shaping Russia's relations in both Europe, and Asia.
• The EEU, or Russia’s Eurasian Economic Union, supports the integration of Russia with the Eurasian region.
• The Russian defense industry opposes any and all arms agreements that would limit the output of the state, and prefers weapons sale with countries such as India, China, and nations in the middle east
• Putin's business elites are starting to become replaced by the oligarchs of the 1990s, influencing state control over industries.

Business Elites and Foreign Policy Preferences

• There is a state desire to avoid sanctions, prioritizing access to all foreign markets.
• Westerners and the elites both agree on a necessity to balance economic corporations, and the goal to create an environment in which Russia may maintain trade agreements with other countries, while retaining internal sovereignty.

Russian Military's Worldview & Foreign Policy Approach

• The modern Russia views everything through a lens of strategic competition and nationalism, as can be felt throughout a variety of aspects of geopolitics.
• Because of this, Russia is seeing now as a "besieged fortress," now facing issues of encirclement by NATO.
• One goal of the state is nuclear deterrence, they want to have strategic influence by matching that of the U.S.
• It is also their goal to maintain buffer zones. They want to suppress that of NATO, by taking control of the neighboring states.
• In order to counter western technology, investment is continually put into modernizing the aspects of Russia's military.
• The military's influence is closely related to a number of varying factors, with certain politicians wanting to give the military more power by comparison.

Who Are the Siloviki?

• The Siloviki are those of factions inside the political elite from factions such as military, and intelligence
• Many see state control as a means of power
• These factions often correlate with people who value assertive and great power activations
• they maintain influence by focusing on national security, such as taking to various military based intervention operations.

Stalin-Era Soviet Foreign Policy

• Stalin would focus on satellite states, creating a supposed buffer to prevent western interaction
• His confrontation with the US led to the cold war, creating factions and issues in different states
• He suppressed the ideas internally in his own country by any means, even those that broke various pacts

Factors Behind Russian Hostility to the West Post-1991

• This distrust and hostility is born from a number of factors, from as far back as pre-1917 where invasions from France and England soured relations
• Soviet ideology is also to blame, which fostered the sentiment now as well as the idea that the west poses an existential threat
• The policies enacted at USSR reinforced the Russian ideals of betrayal
• Certain western and nato interventions, in tandem soviet states, has only created fuel for that very resentment to continue.