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Scientific Research as a Critical Tool

• Scientific research is crucial for understanding the complex world.
• Without it, we rely on intuition, authority, and luck, potentially leading to inaccurate conclusions.
• History shows examples of incorrect assumptions, like the geocentric model or the idea that mental illness is caused by possession.
• Scientific research uses evidence to support claims, giving us an objective understanding of ourselves and the world.

The Goal of All Scientists

• All scientists aim to understand the world.
• Psychologists are interested in behavior, and the cognitive and physiological processes behind it.
• Scientific research is based on empirical evidence, observable and tangible data.

Use of Research Information

• Access to information is readily available, but it is important to assess the reliability and validity of information, especially online.
• Critical thinking involves examining different perspectives: expertise, motives, evidence, and opinions of other researchers.
• Decisions based on research have significant consequences in personal lives and public policy.

Educational Impact of Technology

• Technology's impact on learning is a topic of ongoing research.
• Some studies show an increase in student engagement and better test scores.
• Other studies indicate negative impacts on sleep, communication, and time management skills.
• There is no clear consensus on technology's effects on mental health, as further research is required.

Notable Researchers

• Margaret Floy Washburn was the first woman to earn a PhD in psychology, focusing on animal behavior.
• Mary Whiton Calkins was a prominent early American psychologist and pioneer in experimental psychology. She focused on memory and established one of the first experimental labs.
• Francis Sumner: the first African American to achieve a PhD in psychology.
• Inez Beverly Prosser: became the first African American woman to earn a PhD in psychology and focused on the effect of education in segregated versus integrated schools.

The Process of Scientific Research

• Scientific knowledge advances using the scientific method.
• This is a cyclical process of testing ideas against real-world observations.
• It involves two main types of reasoning: deductive (testing ideas against observed data) and inductive (creating new ideas from observations).

The Scientific Method

• The scientific method involves deriving hypotheses from theories and testing them.
• If the results support the theory, the theory is supported.
• If the results do not support the theory, the theory should be modified and new hypotheses are generated.
• Hypotheses must be falsifiable (capable of being proven wrong).

Clinical or Case Studies

• Case studies examine individuals or small groups in depth.
• They can provide valuable insights into specific cases and unique phenomena.
• However, it is difficult to generalize findings to the wider population.
• Case studies often involve observing exceptional cases, such as conjoined twins, that provide unique data.

Naturalistic Observation

• Naturalistic observation involves studying behavior in naturally occurring settings.
• Observers try to remain inconspicuous to avoid influencing the behavior of the participants they are observing.
• Ethical considerations influence the need for inconspicuous observation so as not to bias participants.

Archival Research

• Archival research analyses existing records (historical data) to look for patterns and relationships.
• Research allows researchers to extract data and information from archival records, saving time and resources.
• Researchers can analyse archival research to find correlations between variables that might otherwise be difficult to explore.

Longitudinal and Cross-Sectional Research

• Longitudinal research involves repeated measurements of the same group of participants over a long time period
• Cross-sectional research involves comparing different groups of people at different points in time.

Correlation Research

• Correlation research measures the relationship between variables.
• A correlation coefficient (r) indicates the strength and direction of a relationship (ranging from -1 to +1).
• A positive correlation means both variables increase or decrease together; a negative correlation means one variable increases as the other decreases.

Illusory Correlations

• Illusory correlation involves believing that a relationship exists when no such relationship exists, especially when observations are unsystematic.

Experimental Research

• Experiments establish cause-and-effect relationships.
• The experimental group receives the treatment (independent variable), and the control group does not.
• Random assignment helps ensure the groups are similar, and thus any subsequent differences are due to the experimental manipulation.
• Operational definition defines how variables are measured.

Issues in Experiments

• Ethical constraints can limit experimental research.
• Random assignment, manipulation of variables, and operational definitions.
• Researchers must avoid bias (experimenter bias)

Reporting Research

• Peer-reviewed journal articles are the primary way researchers share their findings.
• Scientists critically evaluate each other’s work to ensure it is methodologically sound and contributes new knowledge.

Research Involving Participants and Animals

• Participants must be adequately informed about the study to ensure their autonomy and well-being.
• Informed consent forms must describe the procedures and potential risks.
• Animal research must follow guidelines and ethical protocols. IACUC committees oversee animal research.

Reliability and Validity

• Reliability refers to the consistency of results.
• Validity refers to the accuracy of results.
• Reliability does not ensure validity.