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Questions and Answers
Which personality type tends to lie more frequently?
Which personality type tends to lie more frequently?
What is the highest rate of lying observed?
What is the highest rate of lying observed?
What emotion is often associated with deception, according to Ekman's emotional approach?
What emotion is often associated with deception, according to Ekman's emotional approach?
Which verbal cue is commonly indicative of lying?
Which verbal cue is commonly indicative of lying?
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In the study of micro expressions, which type of emotion is more challenging to falsify?
In the study of micro expressions, which type of emotion is more challenging to falsify?
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Which of the following is a nonverbal cue that indicates a person may be lying?
Which of the following is a nonverbal cue that indicates a person may be lying?
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How often do women tell social lies compared to men?
How often do women tell social lies compared to men?
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What percentage of people report lying to a prospective date?
What percentage of people report lying to a prospective date?
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What characterizes unstructured clinical judgment?
What characterizes unstructured clinical judgment?
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Which assessment method uses empirical and statistical evidence to predict risk?
Which assessment method uses empirical and statistical evidence to predict risk?
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What is a significant advantage of structured professional judgment over unstructured clinical judgment?
What is a significant advantage of structured professional judgment over unstructured clinical judgment?
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What type of risk factors are defined as unchangeable historical factors?
What type of risk factors are defined as unchangeable historical factors?
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Which of the following is an example of dynamic risk factors?
Which of the following is an example of dynamic risk factors?
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In the context of risk assessment, what does acute dynamic risk factors refer to?
In the context of risk assessment, what does acute dynamic risk factors refer to?
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What was a key finding from Clark's 1999 assessment of clinical judgments?
What was a key finding from Clark's 1999 assessment of clinical judgments?
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Which tool is an example of structured professional judgment?
Which tool is an example of structured professional judgment?
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What is the primary goal of starting with free recall in an interviewing process?
What is the primary goal of starting with free recall in an interviewing process?
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Which technique is suggested for assisting children in recalling information?
Which technique is suggested for assisting children in recalling information?
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What is the purpose of organizing recall into conceptual groups during an interview?
What is the purpose of organizing recall into conceptual groups during an interview?
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Why is it important to pick up on details mentioned by the child?
Why is it important to pick up on details mentioned by the child?
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What is a key principle of classical criminology?
What is a key principle of classical criminology?
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What does positivist criminology primarily focus on?
What does positivist criminology primarily focus on?
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Which of the following is an example of subcultural explanation in criminology?
Which of the following is an example of subcultural explanation in criminology?
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Which somatotype, according to Sheldon, is described as muscular and strong?
Which somatotype, according to Sheldon, is described as muscular and strong?
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What is a significant criticism of biological theories of crime?
What is a significant criticism of biological theories of crime?
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What concept does Eysenck's personality model address in relation to criminality?
What concept does Eysenck's personality model address in relation to criminality?
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In control theory, what is emphasized as a necessary component to curb antisocial behavior?
In control theory, what is emphasized as a necessary component to curb antisocial behavior?
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Which sentencing rationale aims to repair the harm caused to victims?
Which sentencing rationale aims to repair the harm caused to victims?
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What reflects the modern aim of incapacitation in sentencing?
What reflects the modern aim of incapacitation in sentencing?
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Which statement accurately describes the role of social labelling in crime?
Which statement accurately describes the role of social labelling in crime?
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What does general deterrence aim to achieve in the context of crime prevention?
What does general deterrence aim to achieve in the context of crime prevention?
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Which of the following better represents the concept of rehabilitation in modern sentencing?
Which of the following better represents the concept of rehabilitation in modern sentencing?
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What is a potential consequence of low base rates in risk assessment?
What is a potential consequence of low base rates in risk assessment?
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What is more effective for ensuring children tell the truth?
What is more effective for ensuring children tell the truth?
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Which age group is more prone to developing false memories during interviews?
Which age group is more prone to developing false memories during interviews?
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What can undermine a child's testimony during interviews?
What can undermine a child's testimony during interviews?
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What is a technique that can help prevent suggestibility in child testimony?
What is a technique that can help prevent suggestibility in child testimony?
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What factor affects children's ability to distinguish between fantasy and reality?
What factor affects children's ability to distinguish between fantasy and reality?
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Which protocol is suggested for questioning children to improve the accuracy of their testimonies?
Which protocol is suggested for questioning children to improve the accuracy of their testimonies?
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What is a result of adults' preconceptions during child interviews?
What is a result of adults' preconceptions during child interviews?
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Which approach can improve children's confidence during questioning?
Which approach can improve children's confidence during questioning?
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What happens to the accuracy of children's testimonies when they experience direct suggestions?
What happens to the accuracy of children's testimonies when they experience direct suggestions?
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What is an effective strategy for interviewing children to minimize guessing?
What is an effective strategy for interviewing children to minimize guessing?
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What type of memory are younger children more likely to create in response to leading questions?
What type of memory are younger children more likely to create in response to leading questions?
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What is the main goal of the Child Sexual Offence Evidence Program?
What is the main goal of the Child Sexual Offence Evidence Program?
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What is a limitation of children’s ability to recall information during questioning?
What is a limitation of children’s ability to recall information during questioning?
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Study Notes
What is Forensic Psychology?
- Forensic psychology applies psychological knowledge and theories to the criminal and civil justice systems.
- This includes understanding the processes of the justice system and the people involved, such as victims, offenders, police, jurors, judges, eyewitnesses, and expert witnesses.
Historical Perspectives on Crime
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Classical Criminology: Assumes people choose to commit crimes and are responsible for their actions.
- Punishment should be proportionate to the crime (just desserts).
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Positivist Criminology: Emphasizes factors determining criminal behaviour rather than free will.
- Punishment should fit the individual offender instead of the specific crime.
- Emphasizes understanding crime through scientific methods and analysis of empirical data.
- Key positivist theorists:
- Lombroso: Criminals are atavistic (primitive) individuals.
- Hooton: Emphasized criminal profiling based on physical characteristics.
Modern Theories of Crime
- Modern theories build upon positivist approaches, exploring crime's biological, psychological, and sociological roots.
Sociological Explanations of Crime
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Crime is a product of social and cultural forces that precede the criminal act.
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Focus on societal structures and processes that create opportunities for crime.
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Two key sub-theories:
- Structural Explanations: Crime arises from inequalities in social opportunities, leading to strain and frustration.
- Subcultural Explanations: Cultural values within certain groups clash with mainstream society.
Cons of Sociological Theories
- Limited in explaining crimes committed by individuals who haven’t been denied opportunities.
- Only applicable to specific types of offenses.
- Unable to fully explain why people in similar situations don't commit crimes.
Biological Theories of Crime
- Genetic influences and abnormalities are potential factors contributing to crime.
- Social and environmental factors also play a role.
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Constitutional Theories: Focus on physical body types.
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Sheldon proposed three somatotypes:
- Endomorph: Obese, soft, rounded
- Ectomorph: Tall and thin with a well-developed brain
- Mesomorph: Muscular, athletic, strong
- Mesomorphs are more prone to committing aggressive crimes when exposed to the wrong environment.
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Sheldon proposed three somatotypes:
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Cons of Constitutional Theories:
- Oversimplification into rigid categories.
- Correlation between physique and behavior doesn’t equate to causation.
Genetic Theories of Crime
- Adoption studies suggest a genetic link to criminal behavior, though the exact nature of the inherited factors is unclear.
- Cloninger et al. (1982) found adoptive individuals with criminal biological parents had a greater likelihood of committing crimes.
- Eley (1997): Genetic influence may be stronger for aggressive crimes.
- Rhee & Waldman (2002): Twin and adoption studies indicate moderate genetic influences on anti-social behavior.
- Five potential inherited factors include:
- Constitutional predisposition
- Neuropsychological abnormalities
- Autonomic nervous system differences
- Physiological differences
- Personality and temperament differences
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Cons of Genetic Theories:
- Neglects social and environmental causes of crime.
- Leads to concerns about genetic determinism, sterilization, and genocide.
- Limitations in explaining group differences.
- Lack of clarity on the specific inherited components.
Psychological Theories of Crime
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Psychoanalytic Theories (Freud):
- Weak ego and superego lead to poor id control.
- Sublimation: Unmet desires are channeled into substitute gratifications.
- Thanatos: Drive for self-destruction.
- Inadequate identification with parents during childhood.
- Cons: Lack of research support.
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Personality Traits:
- Eysenck: Criminals have higher levels of extraversion, neuroticism, and psychoticism (PEN model).
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Personality Disorders:
- Antisocial Personality Disorder: Disregard for others.
- Psychopathy: Frequent criminal activity and lack of remorse.
Social-Psychological Theories of Crime
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Combines sociological and biological perspectives, emphasizing that crime is learned.
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Control Theory: People behave antisocially unless restrained by internal or external controls.
- Internal controls: Personal beliefs and morals.
- External controls: Social norms, social pressure.
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Learning Theory:
- Operant Learning: Individuals learn that criminal behavior is more rewarding than punishment.
- Social Learning Theory: Criminal behavior is learned through observing and imitating others.
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Social Labelling Theory: Crime and deviance arise from social labelling.
- Stigma creates self-fulfilling prophecies where individuals labeled as criminals are more likely to offend.
History of Sentencing
- 18th-19th Century: Emphasis on deterrence through rational punishment.
- 20th Century: Positivism shifted focus towards rehabilitation.
- Present: Focus on limiting offenders' potential for future harm by separating them from society.
Modern Sentencing Rationales
- Denunciation: Sentencing condemns unacceptable behavior, affirms moral boundaries, and reinforces right and wrong.
- Retribution: Seeks to punish and take revenge for the crime committed.
- Incapacitation: Isolates criminals from society to protect the innocent.
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Deterrence: Prevents future crimes through
- Specific deterrence: Prevents an individual offender from re-offending.
- General deterrence: Setting an example to discourage others from committing similar crimes.
- Rehabilitation: Aims to reform the offender's behavior through various interventions such as CBT.
- Reparation/Restoration: Aims to make the victim "whole again," often involving restitution paid by the offender.
Risk Assessment
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Prediction: Predicts the likelihood and potential consequences of future offending.
- Risk of Offending: The likelihood of someone committing a crime.
- Dangerousness: The level of harm an offender may cause.
- High-risk, high-dangerousness individuals are more likely to re-offend and require proactive interventions.
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Risk Assessment at Major Decision Points:
- Pretrial, Sentencing, Release: During critical points in the justice system.
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Types of Prediction Outcomes
- True Positives/Negatives: Correct prediction of re-offending or not re-offending.
- False Positives/Negatives: Incorrect prediction of re-offending or not re-offending.
Approaches to Risk Assessment
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Unstructured Clinical Judgement:
- Subjective assessments relying on professional discretion and lacking specific risk factors.
- Weak and ineffective in predicting individual violence.
- Clark (1999): Clinical assessments are generally considered weak/ineffective.
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Statistical or Actuarial Assessment (Prediction):
- Employs empirical and statistical evidence to calculate risk based on known behavioral patterns.
- More effective than unstructured clinical judgement.
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Structured Professional Judgement:
- Utilizes guidelines and a list of research-based risk factors to assist in the decision-making process.
- Professional judgement is important for interpreting the information.
- Example: Hare's Psychopathy Checklist Revised (PCL-R).
Types of Predictors
- Risk Factor: A measurable characteristic predicting behavior.
- Static Risk Factor: Unchangeable, historical factors, such as prior convictions.
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Dynamic Risk Factors: Changeable factors.
- Acute Dynamic Risk Factor (ADRF): Quickly variable factors, requiring short-term management.
- Stable Dynamic Risk Factor (SDRF): Enduring factors that can be modified over time with interventions.
Other-Oriented Risk Factors
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Relationship Factors:
- Strained relationships with significant others
- Intimate partner violence
- History of conflict
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Social Support Factors:
- Lack of social support
- Isolation
- Social rejection
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Victimization Factors:
- History of victimization
- Victims of violence by offenders
- Disrupted family environment
- Exposure to traumatic events
Self-Oriented Risk Factors
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Criminal History:
- Number of prior arrests
- Early age of first offense
- Frequency of recidivism
- Type of prior offenses
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Substance Use:
- Alcohol abuse
- Drug abuse
- Heavy alcohol use
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Mental Health:
- Past history of psychiatric disorders
- Current mental health symptoms
- Personality disorders
- Antisocial personality disorder
- Psychopathy
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Psychological Factors:
- Poor impulse control
- Low frustration tolerance
- Anger management problems
- Cognitive distortions
- Negative attitudes toward the law
- Aggression
- Antisocial attitudes
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Protective Factors:
- Positive social support
- Stable housing
- Employment
- Strong family relationships
- Pro-social values
- Emotional stability
- Successful substance abuse treatment
Lying
-
Factors Influencing Frequency of Lying:
- Personality: Extroverts tend to lie more than introverts.
- Gender: Overall, men and women lie at similar rates, but women report telling more social lies.
- Situation:
- 90% of people lie to a potential date.
- 83% lie to get a job.
- People to whom the lie is told:
- Lowest rate of lying occurs with spouses.
- Highest rate of lying occurs with strangers.
Detecting Deception
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Observe Verbal and Nonverbal Behavior:
- Paul Ekman's Emotional Approach: Deception triggers emotions like guilt, fear, and excitement (duping delight).
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Sporer & Schwandt (2006, 2007) Meta-Analysis:
- Verbal cues:
- Higher voice pitch
- Increased response latency
- More speech errors
- Shorter descriptions
- Nonverbal cues:
- Less nodding
- Fewer foot and leg movements
- Less hand movement
- Verbal cues:
- Micro Expressions: Fleeting facial expressions, lasting 1/5 to 1/25 of a second, incongruent with the person's intended message. Negative emotions are harder to fake than happiness.
Factors Influencing Children's Testimony
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Oaths:
- Taking an oath to tell the truth can be helpful for free recall, but less effective when children are highly suggestible.
- However, simply reminding children to tell the truth is not as effective as making them promise to be truthful.
- Lecturing children about honesty does not improve their accuracy.
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Social & Emotional Development:
- Young children may guess when they cannot recall information due to:
- Perceived expectations from adults.
- Difficulty understanding the reason for the questions.
- Even when children can recall information, they may not report it due to:
- Embarrassment or self-blame.
- Pressure to withhold information or threats.
- Lack of perceived support from the questioning environment.
- Reluctance to admit they don't know or understand something.
- Young children may guess when they cannot recall information due to:
Suggestibility in Child Testimony
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Explicit or Implicit Pressure:
- Children are susceptible to suggestions through:
- Direct suggestions or leading questions.
- Assumptions or preconceptions embedded in conversations or interviews.
- Children are susceptible to suggestions through:
-
Source Monitoring:
- Children have weaker source monitoring abilities making it more difficult for them to:
- Distinguish between their own observations and information from others.
- Differentiate between reality and fantasy.
- Studies show children who overhear information are more likely to provide elaborate accounts than actual witnesses, particularly if they believe they saw the event with their own eyes.
- Children have weaker source monitoring abilities making it more difficult for them to:
Contamination by Adult Preconceptions
- Adults can unintentionally influence children's testimony through:
- Imposing negative stereotypes.
- Matching information to their own preconceptions and ignoring alternative explanations.
- Asking questions that reflect their pre-existing beliefs.
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Preventing Suggestibility:
- Be aware of personal biases and preconceptions.
- Allow children to disagree with the interviewer.
- Explore alternate versions of events.
- Review and revise the child’s testimony with them.
- Verify source monitoring, especially with older children.
False Memories
- Studies have shown that children can be susceptible to false memories, especially younger children.
- Studies with 3-6 year olds demonstrated:
- Younger children were more easily influenced to accept false events over a series of interviews.
- Children often provided elaborate details about fabricated events.
- Research with 7-8 and 11-12 year olds highlighted:
- 7-8 year olds were more susceptible to implanted false memories during initial interviews.
- Over time, younger children became more confident in their false memories, while older children became less confident.
- Studies with 3-6 year olds demonstrated:
Cross-Examination
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Potential for Suggestibility:
- Cross-examination practices can unintentionally lead to suggestibility when interviewers:
- Challenge a child’s certainty.
- Express disbelief and offer alternative narratives.
- Employ confrontational, accusatory, or motive-questioning approaches.
- Cross-examination practices can unintentionally lead to suggestibility when interviewers:
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Training to Resist Suggestions:
- Children can be trained to resist suggestions, leading to:
- Increased confidence in their responses.
- Fewer changes to their initial accounts overall.
- Fewer changes to initially correct responses.
- Children can be trained to resist suggestions, leading to:
Solutions: How to Question Children
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Setting Ground Rules:
- Promise to tell the truth.
- Allow children to correct the interviewer.
- Assure children it's okay to not know and discourage guessing.
- Encourage children to report when they do not understand.
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NICHD Protocol (National Institute of Child Health and Human Development)
- Set ground rules.
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Start with free recall:
- Obtain information without leading or contaminating evidence.
- Discourage selective reporting.
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Use broad, directive prompts:
- Engage with general, open-ended questions.
- Provide cues to trigger recall.
- Focus on relevant information.
- Organize recall into conceptual groups.
- Assist with a systematic search of memory.
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Follow up on child’s statements:
- Use open-ended questions to clarify details mentioned by the child.
-
Use specific questions sparingly, at the end:
- Employ closed questions only when essential information is missing.
- Follow closed questions with an open-ended question.
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