Rozdział 5: W stronę obserwacji

• The provided readings offer detailed descriptions of the topics discussed in the chapter.

Chapter 5: Towards Observation

• The chapter discusses the concept of observation in research.
• It covers different types of observational studies.
• It explores the tasks of observation as a research method.
• It details the observational research process.
• It addresses the issue of validity in observation.
• It examines the observer's attitude.
• It looks at observation in public places.
• It considers observational research and ethics.

After reading this chapter, you will:

• Gain a deeper understanding of the concepts and procedures related to the observation technique
• Better comprehend one of the three fundamental ethnographic skills discussed in the previous chapter

Definition of Observation

• Ethnographic research combines observation, interviews, and analysis of existing data.
• Observation skills are crucial for making sound judgments about various issues.
• Research observation is more systematic and formal than everyday observation.
• Ethnographic research involves regular and repeated observation of people and situations.
• This is often done to answer theoretical questions about behavior or social organizations.
• Observation involves perceiving phenomena and recording them for scientific purposes.
• This often involves the use of appropriate tools.
• Observation uses all senses, not just sight
• Ethnographers should be attuned to information from all sources.

Types of Observational Studies

• Observation involves some contact with the subjects or objects being observed.
• Ethnographic observation occurs in the field, in natural settings.
• The observer is involved, to varying degrees, in what they observe.
• The level of involvement depends on the role the ethnographer takes.
• Raymond Gold (1958) identified four classic roles of the ethnographer:
  • Complete observer
  • Observer-as-participant
  • Participant-as-observer
  • Complete participant
• Complete observer:
  • The ethnographer remains distant from the research setting.
  • They remain invisible and unnoticed.
  • This role aims for objectivity.
  • It is now less popular due to the risk of bias and ethical concerns.
  • An example is Spencer Cahill's (1985) study of interactional order in public restrooms.
• Observer-as-participant:
  • The researcher conducts observations for short periods.
  • This can help to provide context for interviews or other research.
  • The researcher is known to the participants but interacts only as a researcher.
  • An example is Kathryn Fox's (2000) observations in a prison group promoting "cognitive change of self-image" among violent offenders.
• Participant-as-observer:
  • The researcher integrates more fully into the lives of the group.
  • The researcher also develops relationships with the subjects.
  • The role involves being both a neutral researcher and a friend.
  • Their actions as a researcher are respected.
  • Elijah Anderson (1990) and his wife spent fourteen vacations living in two neighboring communities.
  • One community comprised poor African American families.
  • The other community was racially diverse with a growing population of upper-class white residents.
  • Anderson studied street interactions involving young black men in both communities.
• Complete participant:
  • The researcher fully immerses themselves in the research setting.
  • The researcher engages in relationships with participants.
  • The researcher sometimes does not reveal their research agenda.
  • Anthropological jargon refers to this as "going native," however, this term is somewhat dismissive.
  • "Native field studies," conducted by members of the culture being studied, are gaining recognition.
  • Some believe a "native" can establish better rapport with the subjects of ethnographic observation.
  • However, complete immersion can impair the researcher's ability to analyze.
  • Ethical problems can arise at both ends of the spectrum – full engagement or complete detachment – due to misleading the subjects.
• Researchers are now defining roles in terms of membership.
• Researchers adopting a peripheral membership observe participants and interact closely with them.
  • The researchers take on the identity of an insider.
  • They do not participate in activities central to the group, such as researchers analyzing drug culture
• Researchers choosing an active membership take actions within the group.
  • They avoid engaging in group values, goals, and attitudes.
  • An example of this is an anthropologist leading studies for those whom support creationism
• Researchers who decide to take on complete membership, analyze contexts in which they actively participate.
  • They also advocate for the group's positions on various issues.
  • Ken Plummer (2009) wrote about revealing his homosexual orientation.
  • He also discussed his involvement in political activities to reform laws concerning homosexuality.
  • Lastly, he discussed analyzing London's gay scene in the late sixties.
• Ethnographic research often takes the form of participant observation.
  • This is a "process of gaining knowledge by exposing oneself to or engaging oneself in the daily or routine activities of participants in a targeted environment."
  • Participant observation is a "strategy for facilitating data collection in the field."
  • Researchers can use other data collection techniques such as surveys, existing data analysis or interviews, in addition to observation.

Tasks of Observation as Research

• Observation techniques are useful in studies focusing on:
  • Specific places (e.g., shopping mall, church, school)
  • Events, understood as sequences of actions extended in time and more complex than single acts
  • Demographic factors, such as indicators of socioeconomic status (housing type/materials, presence of sewage, etc.)

Functioning as an observer requires:

• Language skills (seemingly obvious, but important).
• Sensitivity (awareness of ordinary details others miss).
• Good memory (note-taking may not always be possible).
• Intentional naiveté (willingness to ask obvious questions).
• Writing skills (observations need to be contextualized).

The Observational Research Process

• Observation is rarely a single act, but a series of steps.
• The first step is to select a research site.
• This choice may pursue a theoretical problem.
• The choice may represent a topicof interest.
• The researcher must gain access to the community.
• Some communities are more open to outsiders than others. In less friendly places, preparation is key.
• Contact formal gatekeepers (police, politicians).
• Also, contact informal gatekeepers (respected elders).
• Gaining their agreement and support is important.
• Research teams may need training. This will ensure tasks are properly performed.
• If a researcher needs translators, allocate time for acclimatization.
• Allow for preliminary acclimatization to the research site.
• The more exotic the place, the more likely a cultural shock.
• "Shock" can also occur in familiar settings since the researcher will be viewed as an outsider.
• When observation begins, researchers may need to note everything they see.
• Understanding what is relevant comes later through repeated observations.
• Note observations for future reference.
• There is no universally accepted format to record.
• There can also be highly systematized lists/grids.
• Others prefer loose notes, writing by hand.
• The best method is the one that allows for the most comprehensive analysis.
• Team projects require standardizing the data collection.
• With research progress, observations will point to certain patterns. They will also provide insight into new, emerging questions.
• James Spradley (1980) likened the process to a funnel.
• The researcher's focus narrows, deeper analysis becomes more apparent.
• One can also come the realization, from repeated observations (consulting with members of the researched community), of what is and is not important.

The Issue of Validity

• Quantitative researchers can show validity and reliability using statistics.
• "Reliability" is a measure of how consistent an observation is.
• "Validity" measures how accurately an observation represents what it seems to.
• Qualitative ethnographers are less concerned about repeatability.
• Some analyses are not really repeatable.
• One researcher will not observe in the same community for the same time period will not obtain exact results.
• In contrast, a biologist using a microscope to see cells that that should get standard results.
• Observation-researchers must also come nearer to the criteria in the form of research reliability.
• Observations with the same registration can be repeated consistently.
• Scientists depend on research because public can examine and objectively analyse the same human actions. As time goes on, this information is more reliable.
• However, surveys from post-moderns may disagree on the best approach
• In result, researchers must still acknowledge and take note in the validity of the study.
• When a lack of foundation is revealed that can not be trusted, the whole study looses meaningful significance.

Most frequently used methods/ pointers to guide research

• It is best to do the assigned work with more than one observer or a research teams.
• The group should represent a variety of points, in which researches can then cross- reference one mutual establishment.
• Use the methodology of analytical induction, this means the new establishments are checked and verified in search for negative/incorrect cases.
• In doing so the researcher can obtain "Universal Ground."

Description of Analysis

• Researches can use probability techniques, while using observations of the study.
• This is why researchers can go into what is called logical reasoning, and/ or abstract a type of fact. The study can become "authentic" in all the viewers eyes.

A better understanding

• Scientist and ethnographers can share the most reliable resources from studies
• From this data, scientists produce a guide that leads to conclusions from all findings.

Setting the Observer

• Ethnograpghers and researchers can be criticized about their own subjection.
• Most researchers can find a way to go around criticism
• Some may agree that not wanting to avoid all viewers is more clearly shown.

Minimizing Personal Settings

Most always goes with with Observational Studies

• Fact: By itself nature is a vaccine to observer settings*
• When people get the chance, they end up doing their own thing
• Researchers can now use the "emergent" plan to start their studying

Important

• Researches and scientists may choose to abandon pre-existing categories
• Observation allows you to come to new resolutions as you gain experience to the world.

The study with good results/ coming together

• Experiments, clinics and laboratories are missing environment to build an experiment
• Terrestrial geography rarely happens by an independent experiment
• Surveys/ Interviews need to give accurate and correct data
• Test trials are also useful to complete as assessment for data.

Observation in Pubic settings

• The most typical example for these types of observations happens in public places.
• Fact: Observations continue to be on the top of ethic code because they are a "field" for observations.
• Space that is public can be easily viewed ex: malls or airplane waiting areas.

The Bottom Line : Observation in Public Places

• Some claim they need to continue certain and specific code of respect.
  • They will be able to make better understanding /decisions

The key concept

The bottom line for researchers and people is that there is always agreement that they have and or show respect.

Rozdział omawia koncepcję obserwacji w badaniach. Opisuje różne rodzaje badań obserwacyjnych i analizuje zadania obserwacji jako metody badawczej. Szczegółowo opisuje proces badawczy obserwacji oraz kwestię ważności obserwacji. Bada również postawę obserwatora.