Roman Empire: Republic to Principate

Transitioning from Republic to Empire

• The Roman Empire is also known as the Principate
• The end of the Republic and the beginning of the Principate occurred in the first century BCE
• The Empire did not fully materialize immediately after Caesar's death but was forming
• A Roman Empire, in a sense, existed after Sicily became a province in 241 BCE

End of the Republic

• The absence of a unifying threat led to the dissolution
• Metus hostilis, the fear of the enemy, ended with the major wars in the mid second century BCE

Caesar's Death

• On March 15, 44 BCE, around 60 senators assassinated Caesar at the Theater of Pompey
• C. Cassius Longinus and M. Iunius Brutus were the lead instigators
• The conspirators did not kill Caesar's allies like M. Aemilius Lepidus and Mark Antony
• Although Lepidus wanted to march on Rome, Antony kept the situation under control via political compromise
• No action was taken against Caesar's assassins, who were called tyrannicides
• All of Caesar's measures and appointments remained valid
• Lepidus was appointed pontifex maximus to keep him quiet
• Caesar's will was read publicly for economic reasons so Antony could understand Caesar's wishes

Caesar's Funeral

• Caesar's will was made public, bequeathing 300 sesterces to each Roman citizen
• Caesar giving up much of his property resulted in a massive outcry against the assassins
• People believed the new star in the sky during the funeral was Caesar becoming a God
• People cremated Caesar's body on a funeral pyre, using wood from Senate chairs and speaker platforms
• A temple of Divine Julius was built where the pyre was extinguished to worship Caesar as a God

Caesar and his Adopted Son

• Caesar named Gaius Octavius, his grandnephew, as his political heir, not Antony
• Octavian was among soldiers in Macedonia preparing for a campaign against the Parthians
• Octavian arrived in Italy at Brindisi, made his way to Rome, and began vying for power at 18/19 years old
• Gaius Iulius Caesar Octavianus was Caesar's adopted son

Antony versus Octavian

• Both Antony and Octavian tried to consolidate power
• They played both sides in the populares/optimates game after Caesar's assassination

Antony

• Antony served as consul alongside Caesar in 44 BCE
• Antony spoke at Caesar's funeral
• Antony had more political experience

Octavian

• Octavian was Caesar's grandnephew and named heir in Caesar's will
• Octavian emphasized his adoption by Caesar, positioning himself as the son of a god
• Octavian earned the loyalty of Caesar's veterans

The Aftermath War of Mutina (43 BCE)

• Marc Antony left Rome with his army to command Cisalpine Gaul and control Italy
• Governor Decimus Iunius Brutus Albinus refused to leave Mutina
• Antony besieged Mutina, using vengeance for Caesar as an excuse to fight the Governor
• Cicero convinced the senate to send consuls and Octavian against Antony

Philippics

• Cicero made 14 speeches known as Philippics against Antony
• Octavian utilized Cicero's speech to create a negative image of Antony and consolidate power

Mutina Continued

• Antony lost in Mutina and retreated into Gaul
• The consuls died in battle
• Octavian asked the Senate for consulship and rewards, but the Senate refused
• Octavian marched on Rome with eight legions and became consul at 19 years old
• Octavian and Antony reconciled as Cicero feared

The Second Triumvirate

• In 43 BCE, Antony, Octavian, and M. Aemilius Lepidus formed the Second Triumvirate
• It was an official, recognized body to restore the state and fix problems
• Antony outlawed Caesar's assassins

Territorial Responsibility

• Marc Antony controlled the Eastern empire
• Octavian controlled the Iberian Peninsula, Western Mediterranean Islands, and Italy
• Lepidus controlled Africa
• There were written extensive proscriptions of over 300 senators and equites, including Cicero, by Antony
• Julius Caesar was officially deified

Cicero's End

• Cicero was placed on proscription lists and captured on December 7, 43 BCE, in his villa in Formiae
• Cicero bowed his head in acceptance of his death, which was cut off and displayed publicly along with his hands on the tribunes

Pursuing Caesar's Assassins

• Cassius and Brutus retained control of the East in Greece and Asia Minor and gathered forces
• In 42 BCE, Brutus and Cassius were defeated at the Battle of Philippi
• Lepidus was left in Italy while Antony and Octavian marched and defeated the conspirators
• Antony and Octavian organized to kill Caesar
• Lepidus slowly drifted away and the main power was between Antony and Octavian
• Antony and Octavian had trust issues but feared what the other might do without the other present

Antony and Octavian

• The triumvirate was essentially Antony against Octavian
• Antony remained neutral in the conflict involving his brother and Octavian and very secluded
• Lepidus lost all power and was no longer a factor

Antony versus Octavian (36-30 BCE)

• Octavian initiated hostile propaganda against Antony
• The propaganda was based on Antony's closeness to the Eastern world and Cleopatra
• Octavian stole Antony's will
• It stated that Caesarion should be Caesar's heir
• It also stated that Antony wished to be buried in Alexandria with Cleopatra
• Octavian asked everyone to swear loyalty to him and declared war on Cleopatra

Octavian's Triumph

• In 31 BCE, the Battle of Actium occurred
• In 30 BCE, the Assault on Alexandria occurred
• Mark Antony and Cleopatra committed suicide, leaving Octavian in complete control of the Roman empire
• Octavian had undisputed control over the Roman world at 33 years old

The Battle of Actium

• A naval battle between the fleet led by Octavian and the combined fleets of Mark Antony and Cleopatra, occurred on September 2, 31 BCE in the Ionian Sea

How to Return to Normal

• Octavian had persisted with his polemic against the monarchical habits of Antony and Cleopatra since the mid-30s
• This prevented a similar outcome

January 13, 27 BCE

• Octavian formally relinquished his extraordinary powers
• He accepted a ten-year command over unrestful provinces
• Governance of peaceful provinces was reinstated to the Roman people

Octavian Resigning

• Octavian claimed to resign all powers and return control of the city, the provinces, and the army to the Senate and the people of Rome
• He claimed superiority in AUCTORITAS but possessed no greater power than his peers
• He was considered primus inter pares (first among equals)

Octavian Resigning Continued

• The Senate proclaimed him Augustus, a few days later, out of gratitude
• The Senate also bestowed the civic crown of oak leaves and the golden shield
• Those were displayed in the Senate and inscribed with his virtues, like justice, clemency, and piety towards the gods

Augustus

• Augustus was elevated beyond ordinary political power
• He was the chosen ruler of Rome, a figure of divine authority, and the protector of Roman values and traditions
• The title balanced Republican ideals with monarchical control
• It created a system where an emperor could rule without being called king

Augustus's Official Powers

• He was consul annually from 31 BCE onwards
• He renounced all official powers to the senate in 27 BCE which was a new concept of power

Augustus

• Republican offices and powers continued to exist
• The Republic remained in name

Augustus Beautified Rome by

• Replacing brick buildings with marble
• Constructing a temple for the deified Caesar
• Restoring the Senate building
• Building two basilicas to the sons of his friend Agrippa
• Constructing a New Forum, the Forum of Augustus, with the temple of Mars Ultor at its center
• Dedicated to Agrippa, the Pantheon
• Posting his Res Gestae, or 'personal' memoirs, in front of his Mausoleum
• The Ara Pacis was constructed
• The Theater of Marcellus was constructed

Imperial Fora

• Forum: multipurpose, centrally located open area that was surrounded by public buildings and colonnades, serving as public space

Week 7B: The first century CE Tiberius & Caligula

• Augustus set off the first dynasty, The Julio-Claudian dynasty
• Augustus and Tiberius were from the Iulii family
• The emperors after tiberius were from the Claudii family

Augustus' Successor?

• Claudius Marcellus Augustus' nephew and son in law was considered, but later died from a fever in 23 BCE
• Agrippa who was Augustus' military advisor, not wasn't considered
• Gaius and Lucius Caesar was also considered, but not chosen
• Tiberius was Augustus' stepson
• Tiberius was chosen by Augustus' but reluctant

What to Know About Each Emperor

• How did he come to power or how did his rule end?
• What did he do at home or in Rome?
• What did he do abroad, like in military campaigns?
• Only important information
• What were his relations with the Senate, Praetorian Guard, and the people?
• Was he looked upon favorably?

Tiberius 14-37 CE

• There was now forward counting in years, as opposed to backward
• He was technically the first emperor, but the son of the enemy of Augustus
• He was the opposite of Augustus
• He was not power hungry and more shy

Tiberius

• Augustus sent him to various areas to complete conquests when he was young
• Tiberius lost his brother, Augustus forced him to divorce his wife Vipsania Agrippina
• Instead, Tiberius was forced to marry Julia, who was the daughter of Augustus
• He went to Rodi in 6 CE to voluntarily exile himself
• This was because he was worried he was gonna die next because all of his other successors died pretty early on
• Tiberius tried to refuse the role of emperor multiple times when Augustus died, but no other heir

What Tiberius Did in General

• Efforts to improve relations with the Senate by increasing their powers to resemble when Caesar was in charge
• He emphasized Fiscal Responsibility by lowering taxes and building up a treasury surplus
• There wasn't many public works due to the treasury surplus
• There was a little expansion for the roman empire and lengthening terms of provincial government

Tiberius Continued

• Trusted Sejanus (sole prefect of the Praetorian Guard)
• He did not negotiate a political marriage and was a mistake
• Germanicus was Tiberius' nephew and adoptive heir, a really good general and well-liked to become a potential new ruler
• It is unclear whether Germanicus was poisoned by Piso or killed under Tiberius' instruction

Tiberius Part 2

• People thought Tiberius was jealous of Germanicus and ordered the death
• introverted Tiberius retreated to Capri in 26 CE
• Sejanus ruled in Tiberius' absence, persecuting enemies and plotting against the imperial family for power
• Tiberius executed Sejanus in 31 CE
• Tiberius named Gemellus and Caligula as co-heirs
• He wanted them both to rule because he had a relationship with the Senate
• He wanted to go backwards where there are multiple rulers rather than one
• In 37 CE, the senate overrides Tiberius' declaration and declares Caligula sole heir

Tiberius Theories

• Tacitus: Accurate historian close to republican ideologies, Empire's dark sides, Doesn't like Tiberius as an emperor
• Tiberius appeared to stop breathing, Caligula received early congratulations, then starting recovering
• Macro smothered Tiberius with bed clothes
• Suetonius: Gossip author, not high credibility, After an illness, Tiberius seemed to have died, Macro ordered Tiberius to be smothered with pillow
• Philo of Alexandria and Flavius Josephus describe Tiberius's death result of natural causes
• Tiberius historians do not mention any foul play or assassination plots

Caligula (37-41 CE)

• Became ruler at age 25
• He thought Tiberius killed his father due to Sejanus killing most of the family
• He can avenge his father in a way
• He earned back imperial popularity through highered taxes
• He saved money and made changes that left the empire bankrupt
• He went through financial irresponsibility
• He had the "Suicide" of Gemellus in 38 CE

Caligula as Ruler

• He exiled perceived rivals, incl. his sisters
• It starts feeling like he is being surrounded by enemies
• Relations with the Senate worsened after removing powers Tiberius had given
• He started changing rich people’s wills and imposing high fines for $$
• He nominated his horse as senator to show he did not care about the senate
• He went to campaign in Germany and Northern France
• He lost areas in the East and did not conquer Britain as promised

Imperial Cult Assassination 41 CE

• Caligula referred to himself as a god
• He changed the head of the statues representing the gods with some of his portraits
• He was killed in conjuration at games by the praetorian guards
• There was no succession organized

Claudius CE

• Claudius was one of the few relatives left standing after Caligula's purge
• The bodyguards chose Claudius
• He was weak in the body and in the mind
• He ordered the praetorians
• He killed those who killed Caligula, Well-educated, moderated
• The emperor also increased power
• Increased prominence of freedmen was seen in the court

Roman Harbor of Ostia

• The Harbor was constructed to get cargo inland more efficiently

Claudius History

Aggressive imperial expansion He wrote books and new letters to the alphabet

Agrippina

• Wife and ruler during the time
• First imperial woman to share coin space
• It can be remembered that Agrippina had a legend on reverse of empire
• Dux femina, Afranius Burrus, Seneca quinquennium 54-59 CE

Nero 54-68

Son of Agrippina Installed Kings between to cools Britain became an empire country with cooling effect

Quinquennium Felix

Agrippina was mudered by Nero and was bad with senate Had relations with senate and taxes were raised

Domus Aurea

• The fire of Rome took place
• The fire was near circus Maximus
• Nero returned and helped population
• Nero caused rumors and blamed Christians

CE Revolt - Pisonian

The plot was to grow in Nero Nero took money from senators

Powerful Generals

Jewish revolt was stopped by Vespasian Gov of spain paid praetorian guard Senate considered Nero an public enemy

Galba

The senate declared emperor Otho was enflamed and killed Galba decapitated

Otha the emperor

Senates did not send to him and was defeated by the forces and then committed suicide

Vespasian

The army was not to be rustled and was in Egypt

Vespasian proceeded

The Senate made innovative revenue by selling urine Senate was diluted and taxed Grranted Latin and expansions rights

War

The jewish war took place Vespasian took charge and made the arch of his victories

Vespasian

He needed a formal title and authority He needed to be legal and powerd

Domitian

There was less civil power due to war There were military reforms

Colosseum

Also knows as the flavian was for all to enjoy

Titus

The war was not complete The emperor was ready

Pompeii

• Rich site for architecture
• There were ruins and standard technology for methods

Diocletian

The new behavior autocrat There was spending and was no longer nero

Brother of Titus

There were sources of claims and prominence. And, there was moral fortitude