Robert Frost's Influence on Skinner's Writing

100 Questions

What did early definitions of psychology typically emphasize?

The study of behavior

Which approach to psychology focuses on conditioning principles and self-efficacy in psychotherapy?

Behavioral/Social Learning Approach

What is a key feature of Social-Cognitive Theory in psychology?

Incorporates observational learning and self-regulation

In which area does the Behavioral/Social Learning Approach face criticisms?

Lack of empirical research support

What led John B. Watson to leave Johns Hopkins University?

His divorce and marriage to his research assistant

What concept is John B. Watson known for contributing to?

Behaviorism

According to John B. Watson, what is the end product of personality?

Habit systems

What did B.F. Skinner identify as radical behaviorism?

His approach to explaining behavior without reference to inner causes

Who published an article in 1913 signaling the beginning of behaviorism?

John B. Watson

What did Watson argue psychology should focus on?

Overt behavior

Where did Watson begin promoting his behavioral approach in 1908?

Johns Hopkins University

In what year was Watson elected president of the American Psychological Association?

1915

What is the term for the process of increasing the frequency of a behavior by providing a consequence?

Operant conditioning

In operant conditioning, what type of reinforcement involves the addition of something desirable to increase the frequency of a behavior?

Positive reinforcement

What type of reinforcement involves the removal of something aversive to increase the frequency of a behavior in operant conditioning?

Negative reinforcement

Which term refers to the process of decreasing the frequency of a behavior by providing a consequence?

Punishment

What is the term for the process of decreasing the frequency of a behavior by removing a reinforcing stimulus?

Extinction

What did B.F. Skinner devote two years to after college?

Writing novels

In which novel did B.F. Skinner explore the principles of reinforcement in a utopian society?

Walden Two

What is the focus of Skinner's theory of human behavior, known as radical behaviorism?

Environmental contingencies

Classical conditioning involves modifying an existing stimulus-response (S-R) association through association with what?

A new stimulus

In classical conditioning, what is the term for the disappearance of the conditioned response if the conditioned stimulus is presented without the unconditioned stimulus?

Extinction

What is the term for a new association created by pairing a new conditioned stimulus with the original conditioned stimulus in classical conditioning?

Second-order conditioning

Which type of learning focuses on the effect of consequences on the frequency of behaviors?

Operant conditioning

According to Thorndike's law of effect, what determines whether behaviors are more likely to be repeated?

Satisfying consequences

What is the term for the process of decreasing the frequency of a behavior by removing a reinforcing stimulus?

Extinction

In operant conditioning, what type of reinforcement involves the removal of something aversive to increase the frequency of a behavior?

Negative reinforcement

What is the focus of Skinner's theory of human behavior, known as radical behaviorism?

Association with no stimuli

Which type of learning focuses on the effect of consequences on the frequency of behaviors?

Operant conditioning

Which theory emerged as a response to the limitations of traditional behaviorism, emphasizing the role of behavior-environment interactions?

Social learning theory

Who introduced the concepts of expectancies and reinforcement values to explain the strength of behavior potential in response to certain situations?

Julian Rotter

What did traditional behaviorism not account for, which led to the emergence of social learning theory?

Internal events like thoughts and attitudes

What concept emphasizes the importance of individual differences in human behavior and the complex nature of cause-effect relationships?

Expectancies and reinforcement values

According to Rotter's Expectancy Theory, behavior is determined by:

Our expectations of the outcome of our actions and the values we place on those outcomes

What does Locus of Control refer to?

The continuum from internal to external forces determining outcomes

What is the formula for Behavior Potential according to Rotter's theory?

Behavior Potential = Expectancy + Reinforcement Value

How does Bandura's Social-Cognitive Theory differ from behaviorist views?

It emphasizes the role of cognition in behavior and growth

What is the potential drawback of criticizing a child in front of the class, according to the given text?

It may unintentionally reinforce the child's behavior by rewarding them with attention and status

What is the limited effectiveness of punishment in eliminating unwanted behaviors, as mentioned in the passage?

It does not teach appropriate behaviors, only reducing the frequency of unwanted ones

According to the text, why is delayed or inconsistent punishment ineffective in changing children's behavior?

It does not provide immediate and consistent application with appropriate intensity

What is the process that occurs in operant conditioning, where an individual tends to apply a new response to similar situations?

Stimulus generalization

According to Bandura's concept of reciprocal determinism, behavior is influenced by:

External factors, internal factors, and the behavior itself

Bandura's social-cognitive theory challenges traditional behaviorism by highlighting the role of:

Symbols, forethought, and personal sources of behavioral control

What does Bandura identify as the most significant contribution of social-cognitive theory to the understanding of human behavior and personality?

Observational learning

According to Bandura, how do human beings guide future actions and influence behavior?

By using symbols and forethought to set goals and develop strategies

According to Bandura, how are behaviors like flying and talking learned?

Through observation and noting which behaviors work

What is the key distinction made by Bandura between learning and performance?

Behaviors learned through observation need not be performed

What does the example of observing pistol shooting behavior in movies illustrate?

The concept of behavioral repertoire

What does Bandura's work suggest about the traditional behaviorist view of learning?

It contradicts the traditional behaviorist view of learning

What conviction did Bandura develop during his training at the University of Iowa?

Psychologists should conceptualize clinical phenomena for experimental tests

Why do we perform some behaviors we learn through observation but not others?

Based on our expectations about the consequences

Where do individuals get their expectations about the consequences of behaviors, as mentioned in the text?

From observing others who have been rewarded or punished for similar behaviors

What influences an individual's decision to perform a behavior learned through observation, as discussed in the text?

Expectations about the consequences

In the context of the text, what determines whether an individual will imitate a behavior learned through observation?

Expectations about the consequences of the behavior

According to behaviorists, what may be responsible for maintaining and strengthening phobias?

Operant conditioning

What technique is used in psychotherapy to replace fearful responses with calming ones?

Systematic desensitization

What does classical conditioning involve in the context of treating phobias?

Pairing a feared stimulus with a calming response

What can influence a person's vulnerability to developing a phobia after a traumatic experience?

Previous learning

What therapeutic approach uses pairing undesirable images with behaviors to eliminate them, like helping a smoker imagine vomiting after seeing a cigarette?

Aversion therapy

What is the first step in operant conditioning?

Identifying target behavior and defining it operationally

What type of learning involves rewarding the entire group when a behavior goal is met, like reducing swearing on the playground?

Group contingency interventions

Which therapeutic approach uses specialized equipment to provide information about somatic processes to help individuals learn to control them, such as reducing muscle tension or easing tension headaches?

Biofeedback therapy

What did Bandura's experiment with the Bobo doll illustrate?

The role of consequences in shaping behavior

How did John B. Watson demonstrate classical conditioning with Little Albert?

Creating a fear response to a white rat through pairing with a loud noise

What did behaviorists, including John B. Watson, use classical conditioning to explain?

Seemingly irrational behaviors

How does Bandura's Social-Cognitive Theory differ from behaviorist views?

By highlighting the role of consequences and self-efficacy

According to Bandura's theory, which is considered a better predictor of behavior?

Efficacy expectations

What type of experiences can alter efficacy expectations, according to Bandura's theory?

Enactive mastery experiences

In Bandura's social-cognitive theory, what can alter efficacy expectations but is less effective than actual experiences?

Verbal persuasion

Which of the following is a procedure aimed at helping to build efficacy expectations in a safe and gradual manner, as mentioned in the passage?

Guided mastery

According to the passage, what is the potential impact of failure to instill a sense of efficacy in a client?

The therapeutic efforts may be doomed

What is the role of self-efficacy beliefs, as mentioned in the passage?

Affecting job performance and romantic relationships

What do behavior therapists focus on, as mentioned in the passage?

Treating observable behaviors

What is critical for behavior therapists in assessing behavior?

Objective and reliable assessment of behavior

What type of data can be helpful for behavior therapists in designing treatment programs, as mentioned in the passage?

Data about how often a problem behavior occurs and the events surrounding the behavior

What is the term for the process of creating a situation that resembles a real-world setting in which problem behavior is likely to occur?

Analogue behavioral observation

In behavior therapy, what might a therapist stage for clients suffering from acute shyness?

A dance

What might a therapist ask a couple to do in order to observe their behavior following a disagreement?

Enter into a discussion

What might a therapist ask a client to do if they are helping the client to be more assertive?

Imagine someone cutting in front of them in line

What type of observation does a therapist rely on when they can't be present during certain situations, like a job interview or a married couple's argument?

Analogue behavioral observation

What is the most obvious way to find out how often a behavior occurs?

Direct observation

What is the purpose of having two or more observers code the same behavior in direct observation?

To increase the likelihood of accurate assessment

Why might self-monitoring be challenging for clients, according to the text?

Clients have inaccurate self-perception of their behavior frequency

What is one of the potential drawbacks of using self-monitoring as a method of assessment?

It may lead to honesty issues

Why is it important for observers to be trained in direct observation?

To minimize bias and follow clear behavior definitions

How can observations complement data obtained through other methods, as mentioned in the passage?

By offering a more comprehensive assessment

What is an alternative to direct observation mentioned in the text?

Self-monitoring

Which theorist rejected the use of inner states, such as anxiety, as explanations of behavior in favor of observable external events?

B. F. Skinner

In operant conditioning, what results when a behavior is followed by either reinforcement or punishment?

Operant conditioning

Who proposed that internal states, the environment, and behavior all affect one another, and that people often regulate their own behavior through purposeful, future-oriented thinking?

Bandura

What type of learning did social learning theorists expand on, emphasizing the role of expectancies and values in predicting behavior?

Observational learning

Which key term refers to clients’ beliefs about their ability to succeed, identified by Bandura as crucial for psychotherapy progress?

Self-efficacy

Which criticism of the behavioral/social learning approach focuses on its inappropriate attention to important causes of behavior?

Interpretation of problems into observable behaviors

What is a technique used in psychotherapy based on classical conditioning, aimed at replacing fearful responses with calming ones?

Systematic desensitization

What is a criticism of the behavioral/social learning approach?

Inability to address the role of heredity

What has the social-cognitive theory helped to bridge?

Gap between traditional behaviorism and cognitive approaches

What is the focus of Skinner's theory of human behavior, known as radical behaviorism?

Observable behavior only

What does Bandura's social-cognitive theory challenge traditional behaviorism by highlighting?

Role of cognitive variables in behavior

What concept emphasizes the importance of individual differences in human behavior and the complex nature of cause-effect relationships?

Social-Cognitive Theory

What technique is used in psychotherapy to replace fearful responses with calming ones?

Classical conditioning

Study Notes

Psychology students learn about classical conditioning, where a conditioned response (CR) is formed between a conditioned stimulus (CS) and an unconditioned response (UCR) through association with an unconditioned stimulus (UCS)
Pavlov's dogs salivated at the sound of a bell (CS) after being paired with meat powder (UCS), creating a new association (S-R)
Classical conditioning can be used to create additional associations through second-order conditioning, where a new CS is paired with the original CS
Preferences in food, clothing, and friends may be influenced by classical conditioning
Classical conditioning has limitations, such as the need for occasional reinforcement or extinction, where the conditioned response disappears if the CS is presented without the UCS
Operant conditioning is another type of learning through association, where behaviors are modified based on the consequences they produce
Thorndike's experiments with cats in puzzle boxes demonstrated the law of effect, that behaviors are more likely to be repeated if they lead to satisfying consequences and less likely if they lead to unsatisfying consequences
Unlike classical conditioning, operant conditioning begins with spontaneous behaviors and concerns the effect of consequences on their frequency
Reinforcement increases the frequency of a behavior, while punishment decreases it, and the impact varies depending on the person and situation.
Bandura introduces the concept of reciprocal determinism, which suggests that external factors and internal factors interact to influence behavior and the system as a whole.
Bandura uses the example of someone being asked to play racquetball with someone they don't like to illustrate the interaction between internal expectations and external inducements.
The reciprocal determinism process is diagrammed in Figure 13.3, which shows that each of the three variables (behavior, external factors, and internal factors) influences each other.
Bandura argues that the model is different from traditional behaviorism, which only considers external events as causes of behavior.
Human beings use symbols and forethought to guide future action and most behavior is performed in the absence of external reinforcements and punishments.
Bandura identifies the concept of observational learning as social-cognitive theory's most important contribution to the understanding of human behavior and personality.
We can learn by observing or reading about other people's actions, in addition to classical and operant conditioning.
Bandura challenges the extreme behaviorist assertion that people will perform any action if the environmental contingencies are altered appropriately, emphasizing the role of personal sources of behavioral control.
Bandura argues that human beings use imagination and self-regulation to set goals and develop strategies, which influences behavior without engaging in random actions and waiting for rewards or punishments.
Millions of Americans seek professional help to quit smoking or lose weight each year, but only a small percentage permanently quit or maintain their weight loss.
Self-efficacy, as proposed by Bandura, is crucial in behavior change. It refers to the belief that one can perform the necessary actions to achieve a desired outcome.
Outcome expectations refer to the belief that actions will lead to a certain outcome, while efficacy expectations refer to the belief in one's ability to perform the actions.
Efficacy expectations are better predictors of behavior than outcome expectations.
Enactive mastery experiences are successful attempts to achieve an outcome in the past, which can boost efficacy expectations.
Vicarious experiences, or observing others performing a behavior successfully, can also alter efficacy expectations.
Verbal persuasion, or being told that one can do it, can change efficacy expectations but is less effective than actual experiences.
Physiological and affective states can influence efficacy expectations; interpreting symptoms as signs of anxiety can lead to a belief that one is incapable.
Therapies often involve altering clients' efficacy expectations through enactive mastery experiences, vicarious experiences, or verbal persuasion.
Guided mastery is a procedure that arranges situations to ensure clients have successful experiences, helping to build efficacy expectations in a safe and gradual manner.
Behaviorism, a central theory in psychology, has endured for over a century due to its empirical foundation and the strengths of the behavioral/social learning approach.
The behavioral/social learning approach is based on observable behavior and the influence of social situations on behavior.
The approach is rooted in empirical research and has provided evidence for the existence of operant and classical conditioning.
It has led to the development of effective therapeutic procedures, especially when combined with cognitive therapies.
Behavioral treatments are popular, quick, and easy to administer, and can be taught to non-experts for use with a wider population.
Social learning theories expanded the behavioral approach by adding cognitive variables, allowing for a more comprehensive understanding of human behavior.
Criticisms of the behavioral/social learning approach include its narrow focus on observable behavior, lack of attention to the role of heredity, and failure to fully capture the complexity of human behavior, particularly in regards to the Skinnerian brand of behaviorism.
Despite these criticisms, behavior therapies have been successful in treating many problem behaviors, but some argue that they may distort the underlying issues.
The social-cognitive theory, which adds cognitive variables to the behavioral approach, has helped to bridge the gap between traditional behaviorism and cognitive approaches to personality.

Explore the impact of poet Robert Frost on B.F. Skinner's writing journey, as well as Skinner's dedication to writing and his realization at the end of a two-year period. Test your knowledge about this influential interaction in literary history!

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