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Questions and Answers
What did early definitions of psychology typically emphasize?
What did early definitions of psychology typically emphasize?
- The study of social interactions
- The study of neurological processes
- The study of thoughts and emotions
- The study of behavior (correct)
Which approach to psychology focuses on conditioning principles and self-efficacy in psychotherapy?
Which approach to psychology focuses on conditioning principles and self-efficacy in psychotherapy?
- Biological Psychology Approach
- Cognitive Psychology Approach
- Behavioral/Social Learning Approach (correct)
- Humanistic Psychology Approach
What is a key feature of Social-Cognitive Theory in psychology?
What is a key feature of Social-Cognitive Theory in psychology?
- Stresses the impact of social conformity on behavior
- Incorporates observational learning and self-regulation (correct)
- Emphasizes the influence of genetics on behavior
- Focuses on unconscious motivations and conflicts
In which area does the Behavioral/Social Learning Approach face criticisms?
In which area does the Behavioral/Social Learning Approach face criticisms?
What led John B. Watson to leave Johns Hopkins University?
What led John B. Watson to leave Johns Hopkins University?
What concept is John B. Watson known for contributing to?
What concept is John B. Watson known for contributing to?
According to John B. Watson, what is the end product of personality?
According to John B. Watson, what is the end product of personality?
What did B.F. Skinner identify as radical behaviorism?
What did B.F. Skinner identify as radical behaviorism?
Who published an article in 1913 signaling the beginning of behaviorism?
Who published an article in 1913 signaling the beginning of behaviorism?
What did Watson argue psychology should focus on?
What did Watson argue psychology should focus on?
Where did Watson begin promoting his behavioral approach in 1908?
Where did Watson begin promoting his behavioral approach in 1908?
In what year was Watson elected president of the American Psychological Association?
In what year was Watson elected president of the American Psychological Association?
What is the term for the process of increasing the frequency of a behavior by providing a consequence?
What is the term for the process of increasing the frequency of a behavior by providing a consequence?
In operant conditioning, what type of reinforcement involves the addition of something desirable to increase the frequency of a behavior?
In operant conditioning, what type of reinforcement involves the addition of something desirable to increase the frequency of a behavior?
What type of reinforcement involves the removal of something aversive to increase the frequency of a behavior in operant conditioning?
What type of reinforcement involves the removal of something aversive to increase the frequency of a behavior in operant conditioning?
Which term refers to the process of decreasing the frequency of a behavior by providing a consequence?
Which term refers to the process of decreasing the frequency of a behavior by providing a consequence?
What is the term for the process of decreasing the frequency of a behavior by removing a reinforcing stimulus?
What is the term for the process of decreasing the frequency of a behavior by removing a reinforcing stimulus?
What did B.F. Skinner devote two years to after college?
What did B.F. Skinner devote two years to after college?
In which novel did B.F. Skinner explore the principles of reinforcement in a utopian society?
In which novel did B.F. Skinner explore the principles of reinforcement in a utopian society?
What is the focus of Skinner's theory of human behavior, known as radical behaviorism?
What is the focus of Skinner's theory of human behavior, known as radical behaviorism?
Classical conditioning involves modifying an existing stimulus-response (S-R) association through association with what?
Classical conditioning involves modifying an existing stimulus-response (S-R) association through association with what?
In classical conditioning, what is the term for the disappearance of the conditioned response if the conditioned stimulus is presented without the unconditioned stimulus?
In classical conditioning, what is the term for the disappearance of the conditioned response if the conditioned stimulus is presented without the unconditioned stimulus?
What is the term for a new association created by pairing a new conditioned stimulus with the original conditioned stimulus in classical conditioning?
What is the term for a new association created by pairing a new conditioned stimulus with the original conditioned stimulus in classical conditioning?
Which type of learning focuses on the effect of consequences on the frequency of behaviors?
Which type of learning focuses on the effect of consequences on the frequency of behaviors?
According to Thorndike's law of effect, what determines whether behaviors are more likely to be repeated?
According to Thorndike's law of effect, what determines whether behaviors are more likely to be repeated?
What is the term for the process of decreasing the frequency of a behavior by removing a reinforcing stimulus?
What is the term for the process of decreasing the frequency of a behavior by removing a reinforcing stimulus?
In operant conditioning, what type of reinforcement involves the removal of something aversive to increase the frequency of a behavior?
In operant conditioning, what type of reinforcement involves the removal of something aversive to increase the frequency of a behavior?
What is the focus of Skinner's theory of human behavior, known as radical behaviorism?
What is the focus of Skinner's theory of human behavior, known as radical behaviorism?
Which type of learning focuses on the effect of consequences on the frequency of behaviors?
Which type of learning focuses on the effect of consequences on the frequency of behaviors?
Which theory emerged as a response to the limitations of traditional behaviorism, emphasizing the role of behavior-environment interactions?
Which theory emerged as a response to the limitations of traditional behaviorism, emphasizing the role of behavior-environment interactions?
Who introduced the concepts of expectancies and reinforcement values to explain the strength of behavior potential in response to certain situations?
Who introduced the concepts of expectancies and reinforcement values to explain the strength of behavior potential in response to certain situations?
What did traditional behaviorism not account for, which led to the emergence of social learning theory?
What did traditional behaviorism not account for, which led to the emergence of social learning theory?
What concept emphasizes the importance of individual differences in human behavior and the complex nature of cause-effect relationships?
What concept emphasizes the importance of individual differences in human behavior and the complex nature of cause-effect relationships?
According to Rotter's Expectancy Theory, behavior is determined by:
According to Rotter's Expectancy Theory, behavior is determined by:
What does Locus of Control refer to?
What does Locus of Control refer to?
What is the formula for Behavior Potential according to Rotter's theory?
What is the formula for Behavior Potential according to Rotter's theory?
How does Bandura's Social-Cognitive Theory differ from behaviorist views?
How does Bandura's Social-Cognitive Theory differ from behaviorist views?
What is the potential drawback of criticizing a child in front of the class, according to the given text?
What is the potential drawback of criticizing a child in front of the class, according to the given text?
What is the limited effectiveness of punishment in eliminating unwanted behaviors, as mentioned in the passage?
What is the limited effectiveness of punishment in eliminating unwanted behaviors, as mentioned in the passage?
According to the text, why is delayed or inconsistent punishment ineffective in changing children's behavior?
According to the text, why is delayed or inconsistent punishment ineffective in changing children's behavior?
What is the process that occurs in operant conditioning, where an individual tends to apply a new response to similar situations?
What is the process that occurs in operant conditioning, where an individual tends to apply a new response to similar situations?
According to Bandura's concept of reciprocal determinism, behavior is influenced by:
According to Bandura's concept of reciprocal determinism, behavior is influenced by:
Bandura's social-cognitive theory challenges traditional behaviorism by highlighting the role of:
Bandura's social-cognitive theory challenges traditional behaviorism by highlighting the role of:
What does Bandura identify as the most significant contribution of social-cognitive theory to the understanding of human behavior and personality?
What does Bandura identify as the most significant contribution of social-cognitive theory to the understanding of human behavior and personality?
According to Bandura, how do human beings guide future actions and influence behavior?
According to Bandura, how do human beings guide future actions and influence behavior?
According to Bandura, how are behaviors like flying and talking learned?
According to Bandura, how are behaviors like flying and talking learned?
What is the key distinction made by Bandura between learning and performance?
What is the key distinction made by Bandura between learning and performance?
What does the example of observing pistol shooting behavior in movies illustrate?
What does the example of observing pistol shooting behavior in movies illustrate?
What does Bandura's work suggest about the traditional behaviorist view of learning?
What does Bandura's work suggest about the traditional behaviorist view of learning?
What conviction did Bandura develop during his training at the University of Iowa?
What conviction did Bandura develop during his training at the University of Iowa?
Why do we perform some behaviors we learn through observation but not others?
Why do we perform some behaviors we learn through observation but not others?
Where do individuals get their expectations about the consequences of behaviors, as mentioned in the text?
Where do individuals get their expectations about the consequences of behaviors, as mentioned in the text?
What influences an individual's decision to perform a behavior learned through observation, as discussed in the text?
What influences an individual's decision to perform a behavior learned through observation, as discussed in the text?
In the context of the text, what determines whether an individual will imitate a behavior learned through observation?
In the context of the text, what determines whether an individual will imitate a behavior learned through observation?
According to behaviorists, what may be responsible for maintaining and strengthening phobias?
According to behaviorists, what may be responsible for maintaining and strengthening phobias?
What technique is used in psychotherapy to replace fearful responses with calming ones?
What technique is used in psychotherapy to replace fearful responses with calming ones?
What does classical conditioning involve in the context of treating phobias?
What does classical conditioning involve in the context of treating phobias?
What can influence a person's vulnerability to developing a phobia after a traumatic experience?
What can influence a person's vulnerability to developing a phobia after a traumatic experience?
What therapeutic approach uses pairing undesirable images with behaviors to eliminate them, like helping a smoker imagine vomiting after seeing a cigarette?
What therapeutic approach uses pairing undesirable images with behaviors to eliminate them, like helping a smoker imagine vomiting after seeing a cigarette?
What is the first step in operant conditioning?
What is the first step in operant conditioning?
What type of learning involves rewarding the entire group when a behavior goal is met, like reducing swearing on the playground?
What type of learning involves rewarding the entire group when a behavior goal is met, like reducing swearing on the playground?
Which therapeutic approach uses specialized equipment to provide information about somatic processes to help individuals learn to control them, such as reducing muscle tension or easing tension headaches?
Which therapeutic approach uses specialized equipment to provide information about somatic processes to help individuals learn to control them, such as reducing muscle tension or easing tension headaches?
What did Bandura's experiment with the Bobo doll illustrate?
What did Bandura's experiment with the Bobo doll illustrate?
How did John B. Watson demonstrate classical conditioning with Little Albert?
How did John B. Watson demonstrate classical conditioning with Little Albert?
What did behaviorists, including John B. Watson, use classical conditioning to explain?
What did behaviorists, including John B. Watson, use classical conditioning to explain?
How does Bandura's Social-Cognitive Theory differ from behaviorist views?
How does Bandura's Social-Cognitive Theory differ from behaviorist views?
According to Bandura's theory, which is considered a better predictor of behavior?
According to Bandura's theory, which is considered a better predictor of behavior?
What type of experiences can alter efficacy expectations, according to Bandura's theory?
What type of experiences can alter efficacy expectations, according to Bandura's theory?
In Bandura's social-cognitive theory, what can alter efficacy expectations but is less effective than actual experiences?
In Bandura's social-cognitive theory, what can alter efficacy expectations but is less effective than actual experiences?
Which of the following is a procedure aimed at helping to build efficacy expectations in a safe and gradual manner, as mentioned in the passage?
Which of the following is a procedure aimed at helping to build efficacy expectations in a safe and gradual manner, as mentioned in the passage?
According to the passage, what is the potential impact of failure to instill a sense of efficacy in a client?
According to the passage, what is the potential impact of failure to instill a sense of efficacy in a client?
What is the role of self-efficacy beliefs, as mentioned in the passage?
What is the role of self-efficacy beliefs, as mentioned in the passage?
What do behavior therapists focus on, as mentioned in the passage?
What do behavior therapists focus on, as mentioned in the passage?
What is critical for behavior therapists in assessing behavior?
What is critical for behavior therapists in assessing behavior?
What type of data can be helpful for behavior therapists in designing treatment programs, as mentioned in the passage?
What type of data can be helpful for behavior therapists in designing treatment programs, as mentioned in the passage?
What is the term for the process of creating a situation that resembles a real-world setting in which problem behavior is likely to occur?
What is the term for the process of creating a situation that resembles a real-world setting in which problem behavior is likely to occur?
In behavior therapy, what might a therapist stage for clients suffering from acute shyness?
In behavior therapy, what might a therapist stage for clients suffering from acute shyness?
What might a therapist ask a couple to do in order to observe their behavior following a disagreement?
What might a therapist ask a couple to do in order to observe their behavior following a disagreement?
What might a therapist ask a client to do if they are helping the client to be more assertive?
What might a therapist ask a client to do if they are helping the client to be more assertive?
What type of observation does a therapist rely on when they can't be present during certain situations, like a job interview or a married couple's argument?
What type of observation does a therapist rely on when they can't be present during certain situations, like a job interview or a married couple's argument?
What is the most obvious way to find out how often a behavior occurs?
What is the most obvious way to find out how often a behavior occurs?
What is the purpose of having two or more observers code the same behavior in direct observation?
What is the purpose of having two or more observers code the same behavior in direct observation?
Why might self-monitoring be challenging for clients, according to the text?
Why might self-monitoring be challenging for clients, according to the text?
What is one of the potential drawbacks of using self-monitoring as a method of assessment?
What is one of the potential drawbacks of using self-monitoring as a method of assessment?
Why is it important for observers to be trained in direct observation?
Why is it important for observers to be trained in direct observation?
How can observations complement data obtained through other methods, as mentioned in the passage?
How can observations complement data obtained through other methods, as mentioned in the passage?
What is an alternative to direct observation mentioned in the text?
What is an alternative to direct observation mentioned in the text?
Which theorist rejected the use of inner states, such as anxiety, as explanations of behavior in favor of observable external events?
Which theorist rejected the use of inner states, such as anxiety, as explanations of behavior in favor of observable external events?
In operant conditioning, what results when a behavior is followed by either reinforcement or punishment?
In operant conditioning, what results when a behavior is followed by either reinforcement or punishment?
Who proposed that internal states, the environment, and behavior all affect one another, and that people often regulate their own behavior through purposeful, future-oriented thinking?
Who proposed that internal states, the environment, and behavior all affect one another, and that people often regulate their own behavior through purposeful, future-oriented thinking?
What type of learning did social learning theorists expand on, emphasizing the role of expectancies and values in predicting behavior?
What type of learning did social learning theorists expand on, emphasizing the role of expectancies and values in predicting behavior?
Which key term refers to clients’ beliefs about their ability to succeed, identified by Bandura as crucial for psychotherapy progress?
Which key term refers to clients’ beliefs about their ability to succeed, identified by Bandura as crucial for psychotherapy progress?
Which criticism of the behavioral/social learning approach focuses on its inappropriate attention to important causes of behavior?
Which criticism of the behavioral/social learning approach focuses on its inappropriate attention to important causes of behavior?
What is a technique used in psychotherapy based on classical conditioning, aimed at replacing fearful responses with calming ones?
What is a technique used in psychotherapy based on classical conditioning, aimed at replacing fearful responses with calming ones?
What is a criticism of the behavioral/social learning approach?
What is a criticism of the behavioral/social learning approach?
What has the social-cognitive theory helped to bridge?
What has the social-cognitive theory helped to bridge?
What is the focus of Skinner's theory of human behavior, known as radical behaviorism?
What is the focus of Skinner's theory of human behavior, known as radical behaviorism?
What does Bandura's social-cognitive theory challenge traditional behaviorism by highlighting?
What does Bandura's social-cognitive theory challenge traditional behaviorism by highlighting?
What concept emphasizes the importance of individual differences in human behavior and the complex nature of cause-effect relationships?
What concept emphasizes the importance of individual differences in human behavior and the complex nature of cause-effect relationships?
What technique is used in psychotherapy to replace fearful responses with calming ones?
What technique is used in psychotherapy to replace fearful responses with calming ones?
Study Notes
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Psychology students learn about classical conditioning, where a conditioned response (CR) is formed between a conditioned stimulus (CS) and an unconditioned response (UCR) through association with an unconditioned stimulus (UCS)
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Pavlov's dogs salivated at the sound of a bell (CS) after being paired with meat powder (UCS), creating a new association (S-R)
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Classical conditioning can be used to create additional associations through second-order conditioning, where a new CS is paired with the original CS
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Preferences in food, clothing, and friends may be influenced by classical conditioning
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Classical conditioning has limitations, such as the need for occasional reinforcement or extinction, where the conditioned response disappears if the CS is presented without the UCS
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Operant conditioning is another type of learning through association, where behaviors are modified based on the consequences they produce
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Thorndike's experiments with cats in puzzle boxes demonstrated the law of effect, that behaviors are more likely to be repeated if they lead to satisfying consequences and less likely if they lead to unsatisfying consequences
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Unlike classical conditioning, operant conditioning begins with spontaneous behaviors and concerns the effect of consequences on their frequency
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Reinforcement increases the frequency of a behavior, while punishment decreases it, and the impact varies depending on the person and situation.
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Bandura introduces the concept of reciprocal determinism, which suggests that external factors and internal factors interact to influence behavior and the system as a whole.
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Bandura uses the example of someone being asked to play racquetball with someone they don't like to illustrate the interaction between internal expectations and external inducements.
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The reciprocal determinism process is diagrammed in Figure 13.3, which shows that each of the three variables (behavior, external factors, and internal factors) influences each other.
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Bandura argues that the model is different from traditional behaviorism, which only considers external events as causes of behavior.
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Human beings use symbols and forethought to guide future action and most behavior is performed in the absence of external reinforcements and punishments.
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Bandura identifies the concept of observational learning as social-cognitive theory's most important contribution to the understanding of human behavior and personality.
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We can learn by observing or reading about other people's actions, in addition to classical and operant conditioning.
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Bandura challenges the extreme behaviorist assertion that people will perform any action if the environmental contingencies are altered appropriately, emphasizing the role of personal sources of behavioral control.
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Bandura argues that human beings use imagination and self-regulation to set goals and develop strategies, which influences behavior without engaging in random actions and waiting for rewards or punishments.
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Millions of Americans seek professional help to quit smoking or lose weight each year, but only a small percentage permanently quit or maintain their weight loss.
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Self-efficacy, as proposed by Bandura, is crucial in behavior change. It refers to the belief that one can perform the necessary actions to achieve a desired outcome.
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Outcome expectations refer to the belief that actions will lead to a certain outcome, while efficacy expectations refer to the belief in one's ability to perform the actions.
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Efficacy expectations are better predictors of behavior than outcome expectations.
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Enactive mastery experiences are successful attempts to achieve an outcome in the past, which can boost efficacy expectations.
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Vicarious experiences, or observing others performing a behavior successfully, can also alter efficacy expectations.
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Verbal persuasion, or being told that one can do it, can change efficacy expectations but is less effective than actual experiences.
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Physiological and affective states can influence efficacy expectations; interpreting symptoms as signs of anxiety can lead to a belief that one is incapable.
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Therapies often involve altering clients' efficacy expectations through enactive mastery experiences, vicarious experiences, or verbal persuasion.
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Guided mastery is a procedure that arranges situations to ensure clients have successful experiences, helping to build efficacy expectations in a safe and gradual manner.
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Behaviorism, a central theory in psychology, has endured for over a century due to its empirical foundation and the strengths of the behavioral/social learning approach.
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The behavioral/social learning approach is based on observable behavior and the influence of social situations on behavior.
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The approach is rooted in empirical research and has provided evidence for the existence of operant and classical conditioning.
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It has led to the development of effective therapeutic procedures, especially when combined with cognitive therapies.
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Behavioral treatments are popular, quick, and easy to administer, and can be taught to non-experts for use with a wider population.
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Social learning theories expanded the behavioral approach by adding cognitive variables, allowing for a more comprehensive understanding of human behavior.
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Criticisms of the behavioral/social learning approach include its narrow focus on observable behavior, lack of attention to the role of heredity, and failure to fully capture the complexity of human behavior, particularly in regards to the Skinnerian brand of behaviorism.
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Despite these criticisms, behavior therapies have been successful in treating many problem behaviors, but some argue that they may distort the underlying issues.
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The social-cognitive theory, which adds cognitive variables to the behavioral approach, has helped to bridge the gap between traditional behaviorism and cognitive approaches to personality.
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