Rizal's Views: 19th Century Europe, US & Spain

The Condition of Europe, America, and Spain

• José Rizal dedicated a significant portion of his life to exploring various countries across Europe, specifically spending time in nations such as France, Germany, Belgium, and England, which were at the forefront of cultural and political changes during this era. His experiences in these diverse environments greatly influenced his views and literary works.

• The 19th century in Europe marked a transformative period characterized by rapid industrialization, the rise of nationalist sentiments, and the flourishing of Enlightenment ideas, which emphasized reason, science, and individual rights as cornerstones of modern society. These ideas began to shape political landscapes and societal structures across the continent.

• Rizal developed a keen awareness of the prevalent social inequalities in European societies, particularly the stark divisions between the aristocracy and the working classes. He observed how these inequalities affected various populations and contributed to social strife, providing him with a broader context for understanding the plight of his fellow Filipinos.

• He discerned that the social divisions and inequalities present in Europe served as a microcosm of the challenges faced by colonized nations, including the Philippines. This understanding fueled his desire for reform and social justice, as he sought parallels between his country’s situation and those of oppressed classes in Europe.

• During this time, Europe was also seen as the epicenter of colonial expansion, where powerful nations often engaged in the exploitation of colonized territories. Rizal was acutely aware of this paradox: while European countries preached values of enlightenment and progress, they simultaneously perpetuated the exploitation of their colonies, such as the Philippines, under Spanish rule.

America in the 19th Century

• Despite being less physically present in America compared to Europe, Rizal maintained a deep interest in the political and social climate of the United States and Latin America. His insights were informed by the revolutionary ideals of liberty and equality that emerged from the American Revolution, leading him to recognize inherent contradictions in the treatment of marginalized groups, particularly African Americans and Native Americans.

• The Industrial Revolution in America ushered in the rise of capitalist economies, which consequently exacerbated the disparities between the wealthy elite and the working class. Rizal noted how this economic shift hindered social mobility and maintained systematic inequalities, resonating with his observations in Europe.

• Rizal was also closely following the revolutions across Latin America at this time, where various colonies were fighting for independence from Spanish rule. He admired their courageous struggle for freedom, recognizing the historical significance of such movements while also being mindful of the difficulties they encountered in creating stable governments and addressing entrenched social inequalities afterward.

Spain in the 19th Century

• The complexity of Rizal's relationship with Spain was rooted in his admiration for certain elements of Spanish culture, such as language and literature, juxtaposed against his staunch criticism of the colonial policies and governance that plagued the Philippines. This duality reflected his nuanced understanding of identity and nationalism.

• During the 19th century, Spain was engulfed in a state of political turmoil and gradual decline. A series of conflicts, political instability, and shifts in governance contributed to a sense of national crisis, leading to a waning of Spain's influence both in Europe and its colonies.

• The country was marked by frequent changes in government, military defeats, and the painful loss of key colonies such as Cuba and Puerto Rico in 1898, which culminated in Spain’s diminishing international stature. These events served as a backdrop for Rizal's critical assessment of colonial rule.

• Rizal's critiques of Spanish imperialism were not merely political but also addressed the neglect of the Philippines and other colonies. He lamented Spain's failure to invest in the well-being and development of its territories, which stunted their growth and contributed to social unrest.

• While Rizal recognized Spain's cultural contributions—particularly in the realms of language, religion, and education—he argued that these were often employed as tools for maintaining dominance rather than empowering the native Filipinos. He believed that genuine upliftment could only arise from true reform and respect for the indigenous population.

• Rizal felt compelled to take an active role in reformist movements advocating for greater rights and equality for Filipinos. He firmly believed that advocating reforms, rather than attempting a violent revolution, was the key to addressing systemic social injustices and achieving meaningful change.

• His mission was to educate both Filipinos and the Spanish government on the necessity for social change and reform. Rizal sought to bridge the gap between the colonizers and the colonized by fostering a dialogue that would promote understanding and coexistence.

Conditions of the Philippines in the 19th Century

• The landscape of the 19th century in both Europe and the United States was characterized by advances in industrialism, the promotion of democratic ideals, and the rise of nationalism, all of which combined to significantly alter the domains of science, technology, economics, and political structures.

• In striking contrast, the 19th century in the Philippines remained largely medieval in character, with entrenched social and economic structures that were primarily feudalistic in nature. This led to widespread abuse and exploitation of the Indios, who faced various forms of racial discrimination.

• During this period, intellectual decadence was pervasive within Filipino society, as many individuals lacked access to education and opportunities for personal development. Government processes failed to address the needs and aspirations of the people, resulting in widespread dissatisfaction and unrest.

Social Structure

• Philippine society during this period was predominantly structured along feudalistic lines, largely due to the Spanish landholding system which entrenched certain social hierarchies.

• The elite class exercised control over the masses, perpetuating a "master-slave" dynamic in which they exacted taxes, tributes, and manual labor from the lower classes without regard for their well-being.

• The societal framework resembled a pyramid, with Spaniards at the top. Spanish officials (Peninsulares) and friars occupied the apex, while the middle class included several categories, such as:

  • Insulares: Full-blooded Spaniards born in the Philippines who often had privileges over other classes.

  • Creoles: Individuals of mixed Spanish and Filipino ancestry who experienced a complex status within the social hierarchy.

  • Mestizos: People with mixed indigenous Filipino heritage who often faced challenges in terms of their identity.

  • Mestizo de Sangley: Those of mixed Chinese and Filipino ancestry, contributing to the cultural tapestry of the nation.

  • Mestizo de Espanol: Individuals of mixed Spanish and Filipino descent who navigated their social positioning uniquely.

  • Tornatras: Individuals with mixed Spanish, Chinese, and Filipino roots, further highlighting the complex social fabric.

  • Illustrados: The educated middle class who were exposed to modern Spanish liberal and European Nationalist ideas, shaping their aspirations for reform.

• At the base of this social structure were the Indios, the native indigenous peoples who were subjected to the harsh realities of colonial rule.

• Racial discrimination was widespread, with Peninsulares enjoying the highest social privileges, followed by Creoles, while natives or Indios were often marginalized and treated with disdain.

Political Landscape

• Spain governed the Philippines through a centralized authority known as the Ministro de Ultramar (Ministry of the Colonies), which was established in 1863 to help manage colonial affairs.

• This governing body facilitated the Spanish monarchy's oversight of the colonies, employing a centralized machinery that exercised control over executive, legislative, judicial, and religious matters.

• The overall government structure was divided into two main branches: the Central Government (comprising Executive and Judicial branches) and three minor sectors that included Provincial, Municipal, and City Governments.

The Executive Branch

• The Governor General, appointed directly by the Spanish Monarch (King of Spain), served as the head of the central administration based in Manila, representing Spanish authority in the colony.

• As the king's representative, the Governor General wielded extensive powers, including the ability to issue executive orders, oversee government officials, and command the armed forces, effectively acting as a supreme authority in the colony.

• Until 1784, the Governor General enjoyed ultimate authority over financial matters, a significant power given the economic context of the colony.

• This official bore the responsibility for all aspects of governance, which included managing both governmental and religious activities, thereby being accountable for any negligence in administration or misgovernance.

The Judicial Branch

• The Royal Audiencia represented the highest court in the Philippines during the Spanish colonial period, functioning as an advisory body to the Governor General while possessing the authority to check abuses committed by the governor.

• The Residencia was a specialized judicial court established to investigate the performance of a sitting Governor General, especially when one was about to be replaced, ensuring accountability and proper governance.

• Typically, the incoming Governor was a member of this court and was responsible for submitting a report of the findings to the Spanish king, creating a formal avenue for oversight.

• Additionally, the Visita involved sending a government official, referred to as the Visitador General, from the Council of the Indies in Spain to observe conditions within the colony and provide reports back to the king regarding governance and local affairs.

The Provincial Government

• Provincial governance was conducted through Alcaldias, overseen by an Alcalde Mayor (Civil Governor), who played a crucial role in managing local administration and representing both the Spanish King and the Governor General.

• Alcalde Mayors were responsible for implementing laws, managing local operations, and supervising tax collections, acting as intermediaries between the colonial administration and the local populace.

The City and Municipal Government

• Larger towns, known as Ayuntamiento, served as important centers of trade and industry, each governed by a City Council called Cabildo. This council was led by two alcaldes en ordinario, serving as the Mayor and Vice Mayor.

• Local cities that were not completely under Spanish control were managed by a Corregimiento, led by the Corregidor, ensuring that Spanish authority was maintained even in regions of limited governance.

• Each town (Pueblo) was managed by the Gobernadorcillos (Little Governors), who functioned as the chief executive and chief justice, balancing administrative duties and local governance.

• The Gobernadorcillos played an integral role in maintaining local order and tax collection, supported by four lieutenants who assisted in various aspects, which included:

  • The Teniente Mayor (Chief Lieutenant), who assisted in administrative matters.

  • The Teniente de Policia (Police Lieutenant), responsible for law enforcement and maintaining order.

  • The Teniente de Sementeras (Lieutenant of the Fields), overseeing agricultural activities.

  • The Teniente de Ganados (Lieutenant of Livestock), managing livestock and related economic activities.

• While the Gobernadorcillos received modest salaries, they were exempt from taxation. To qualify for this role, individuals were required to be either Indigenous or Chinese Mestizo, at least 25 years of age, literate in oral or written Spanish, and had to serve as Cabeza de Barangay (heads of the smallest administrative units) for four years prior to their appointment.

• The smallest governance unit in this system was the Barangay, which was administered by the Cabeza de Barangay, responsible for maintaining peace and order and managing tax collection within their jurisdiction.

• The policing duties were managed by the Guardia Civil and cuadrilleros, while the corps was typically led by an Alferez (second lieutenant), who was often a Spaniard, highlighting the continuation of colonial oversight in law enforcement.

Educational System

• The introduction of the European education system by Spanish colonizers aimed to convert the local populace and secure their obedience to colonial rule, reflecting the colonial agenda in the educational policies of the time.

• The colonial government collaborated closely with the Catholic Church, instituting religion as a mandatory subject at every level of the education system, ensuring that religious doctrine permeated educational practices.

• Critiques of the educational system during this period included its overemphasis on religious instruction, outdated teaching methods, a limited curriculum that neglected critical subjects, and poor classroom facilities. Additionally, there was a concerning absence of teaching materials, a focus on rote memorization rather than critical thinking, and the neglect of primary education, ultimately impacting educational accessibility and quality.

• The dominance of the friars in the educational system emphasized adherence to religious doctrine and obedience rather than fostering personal confidence among the students. This approach ultimately resulted in the development of an inferiority complex among many Filipinos, stifling the growth of independent thought and critical analysis.

• By the late Spanish colonial period, the College of San Juan de Letran became the sole officially recognized secondary school in the Philippines, highlighting a significant gap in educational opportunities.

• In addition to this, seven provinces established private colleges and Latin schools that focused on general studies, while secondary education for girls was largely supported by five dedicated colleges.

• The University of Santo Tomas emerged as the only university in Manila, having opened its doors to Filipino students well before the conclusion of Spanish rule, marking a significant step toward higher education for the local populace.

• Efforts toward educational improvement were reflected in the establishment of teacher training schools, coupled with government oversight of public education made possible through the Educational Decree of 1863, which sought to enhance the quality and accessibility of education across the archipelago.

Economic Context

• At the end of the 18th century, the Philippines was gradually opened to foreign trade, significantly altering the economic landscape and resulting in the establishment of numerous foreign firms primarily in Manila.

• This newfound access to international commerce stimulated agricultural production, paving the way for the export of various commodities such as sugar, rice, hemp, and tobacco, allowing for greater economic interaction with the global market.

• Families that prospered from foreign commercial activities often seized the opportunity to send their sons abroad for higher education, which was a rare privilege that allowed them to gain knowledge and skills unavailable locally.

• Those Filipinos who were fortunate enough to receive education abroad returned home with new ideas and intellectual developments from Europe, contributing to the burgeoning sense of nationalism and awareness of social issues back in the Philippines.

Factors Contributing to the Development of Filipino Nationalism

• The opening of the Philippines to international trade not only facilitated economic growth but also led to the emergence of a middle class, particularly among Filipinos and Chinese mestizos, as commercial opportunities flourished in cities like Manila.

• With the influx of European liberalism and ideas from prominent philosophers like John Locke and Jean Jacques Rousseau, alongside influences from Masonry and revolutionary movements such as the French Revolution, the zeitgeist of liberty, religious freedom, democracy, and human rights permeated Philippine society.

• One notable event was the opening of the Suez Canal on November 17, 1869, which connected the Mediterranean Sea to the Red Sea, revolutionizing trade routes and further integrating the Philippines into the global economy.

• The Spanish Revolution of 1868, along with the subsequent Liberal Regime of Carlos Maria De la Torre (1869-1871), marked a period of significant political change, with Torre serving as the appointed governor-general of the Philippines.

• Under Torre's governance, several progressive reforms were enacted; censorship of the press was abolished, discussions concerning political issues were encouraged, freedom of speech was proclaimed, and corporal punishment, including flogging, was abolished as a form of punishment.

• These reforms curtailed various abuses such as inappropriate taxation and the forced labor system known as polo. Notably, provisions were also made to allow secular priests to be appointed to vacant parishes or seminaries, creating oversight mechanisms to minimize abuses by regular religious orders, and the reformation of the Royal Audiencia aimed at speeding up the delivery of justice.

Secularization

• In addition to political and social reforms, the issue of secularization within the Philippine Church became increasingly prominent, representing a significant tension between the regular and secular clergy during this time.

• The Council of Trent emphasized the importance of distinguishing between regular priests—those who belonged to specific religious orders aimed at spreading Christianity and secular priests—who were trained to administer parishes under the guidance of local bishops.

• Initially, secular priests advocated for the implementation of royal and papal orders, but they frequently faced opposition, as many Filipino secular priests were viewed as unqualified to lead parishes.

• The Expulsion of the Jesuits in 1767 opened up parish vacancies, creating opportunities for secular priests to step into these roles. However, after the Jesuits were permitted to return in 1858, the parishes once held by secular priests were returned to the regular clergy upon the death of any secular priest in office, highlighting the ongoing struggles over authority within the Church.

• This debate over secularization inevitably placed Filipino secular priests in direct competition with Spanish regular clergy, illustrating the broader tensions inherent in colonial rule, where Spaniards born in the Philippines (Filipinos) often found their rights and roles continually undermined.

Rizal Law (R.A 1425)

• The establishment of the Rizal course was mandated by law under Republic Act 1425, which was authored by the influential Claro M. Recto. This significant piece of legislation aimed to foster a greater appreciation for national pride among Filipinos.

• The first section of the law explicitly mandates that students across all educational institutions be required to read Rizal's novels, which serve as foundational works in Filipino literature and social criticism.

• The latter sections of the law focus on ensuring that Rizal's writings are accessible to the general public, necessitating the availability of sufficient copies in schools and the publication of translations to facilitate wider understanding of his works.

• José Rizal is widely regarded as the founding figure of Filipino nationalism, and his contributions have profoundly shaped the present condition of the nation. His life and works remain a source of inspiration for subsequent generations.

• The law underscores the notion that Filipinos, particularly the youth, should be educated about the high ideals for which Rizal ultimately sacrificed his life, instilling a sense of national identity and cultural heritage.

• On June 12, 1956, Congress approved the Rizal Bill (Senate Bill 448), leading to its enactment as the Rizal Law (Republic Act 1425) under the presidency of Ramon Magsaysay, marking a significant milestone in educational policy.

Intentions/Reasons

• The principal intentions behind the Rizal Law were to rededicate the lives of Filipino youth to the principles of opportunity and patriotism, encouraging a renewed sense of love for their country.

• This initiative aimed to pay tribute to national figures such as Rizal while molding a Filipino populace that is proud of their heritage and ready to contribute to the nation’s progress.

• During the 1950s, a concerted effort was made to instill patriotism and the vision of the Philippines as a unified nation, moving away from colonial depictions and toward a narrative of independence and self-determination.

• In this context, a proposal for a "common patriot program for building the country" was articulated by Jose Lansang, emphasizing the need for a collective identity rooted in national pride.

• Support for the measure came from the Committee of Education under Jose P. Laurel, which advocated for distributing Rizal’s thoughts and standards through his major works, notably *Noli Me Tangere* and *El Filibusterismo*, to cultivate a sense of national consciousness.

• The original proposal sought to make both *Noli Me Tangere* and *El Filibusterismo* compulsory reading material in all educational institutions, reflecting a broader commitment to nationalism and historical awareness.

• The final version of the law declared these novels as required reading in all public and private schools nationwide, seeking to incorporate Rizal's vision into the nation's educational framework.

• The law also specified that these works be made available in their original unexpurgated English and natural language versions, ensuring fidelity to Rizal’s intent and message.

Notable Persons Who Tried To Block Its Approval

• Some notable figures, including Sen. Decoroso Rosales, who was a brother of Archbishop Rosales, expressed opposition to the Rizal Law, fearing its potential impact on Catholic students and the Church's teachings.

• Francisco "Soc" Rodrigo, the President of Catholic Action in the Philippines, was also vocal in his objections to the measure, arguing against its compatibility with Catholic values.

• Sen. Mariano Cuenco, another brother of an Archbishop, alongside radio commentator Jesus Paredes, raised concerns about the possible ramifications of compulsory reading of Rizal's works on the religious sentiments of Catholic students.

• Fr. Jesus Cavana, a member of the Paulist Order, wrote a pastoral letter articulating his stance against the Rizal Law, emphasizing the need for education in line with Catholic doctrine.

Objections to Rizal

• Many objections directed toward Rizal's writings stemmed from their estrangement from Catholic faith, leading some to argue that they contradicted fundamental Christian beliefs and teachings.

• The Church expressed its opposition to making Rizal's works compulsory, claiming that their teachings contradicted established Catholic doctrines. This raised concerns about the potential influence his ideas could have on the education of Catholic students in schools across the Philippines, reflecting deeper tensions between nationalism and colonial religious authority.

Rizal critically examined 19th-century sociopolitical conditions in Europe, America & Spain. He observed industrialization, nationalism, and Enlightenment ideals in Europe, noting social inequalities and colonial expansion. Rizal recognized contradictions in America, particularly regarding liberty, equality, and the treatment of marginalized groups. He saw the hypocrisy of colonial powers like Spain.