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Questions and Answers

Qual è la principale origine dei problemi psicologici secondo Freud?

  • Influenze sociali recenti
  • Esperienze infantili dolorose (correct)
  • Traumi legati all'età adulta
  • Mancanza di sostegno familiare
  • Che cos'è l'inconscio secondo la teoria freudiana?

  • Una teoria sulle relazioni interpersonali
  • La parte della mente consapevole
  • Un insieme di ricordi dimenticati
  • Una dimensione della mente che opera al di fuori della consapevolezza (correct)
  • Qual è l'obiettivo principale della psicoanalisi?

  • Sviluppo delle potenzialità personali
  • Portare il materiale inconscio alla consapevolezza (correct)
  • Ripristino della salute fisica
  • Risoluzione dei conflitti sociali
  • Quali sono due figure importanti nel movimento psicoanalitico oltre a Freud?

    <p>Carl Gustav Jung e Alfred Adler</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Quale movimento psicologico è emerso in risposta alla teoria freudiana?

    <p>Psicologia umanistica</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Come si caratterizzava la visione di Freud sulla natura umana?

    <p>Negativa e concentrata su limiti e problemi</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Qual era una delle critiche principali alle teorie di Freud nel periodo post-bellico?

    <p>La difficoltà di verifica delle idee</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Che cosa cercavano di esplorare gli psicologi umanisti?

    <p>Le potenzialità positive dell'individuo</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Cosa definisce il termine 'cultura' in un gruppo umano?

    <p>Le usanze e i modi di vivere condivisi</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Qual è la principale differenza tra la corrente dell'assolutismo e quella del relativismo nella psicologia culturale?

    <p>L'assolutismo considera i fenomeni universali, il relativismo li considera variabili</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Chi viene considerato il padre della psicologia sperimentale?

    <p>Wilhelm Wundt</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In quale periodo la psicologia culturale ha cominciato a emergere come branca importante della psicologia?

    <p>Negli anni '80 e '90</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Quale aspetto NON è considerato nella definizione delle culture?

    <p>Altezza</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Qual è il principio alla base dell'esperimento di Pavlov con i cani?

    <p>Il condizionamento classico</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Cosa studia principalmente la psicologia culturale?

    <p>L'influenza della cultura sui processi psicologici</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Quale affermazione sul comportamento secondo i comportamentisti è corretta?

    <p>L'ambiente è la principale influenza sul comportamento.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Cosa intendono gli psicologi culturali quando parlano di fenomeni psicologici universali?

    <p>Fenomeni psicologici comuni a tutte le culture</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Quale tra queste affermazioni rappresenta una posizione intermedia nella discussione tra assolutismo e relativismo?

    <p>La maggior parte dei fenomeni psicologici è influenzata dalla cultura</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Cosa caratterizza il sistema di apprendimento di Skinner?

    <p>Il rinforzo positivo e negativo</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Qual è la funzione della 'camera di condizionamento' di Skinner?

    <p>Studiare il concetto di rinforzo attraverso il comportamento attivo</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In che modo Watson applicò le teorie di Pavlov?

    <p>Utilizzando bambini, come nel caso del piccolo Albert.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Qual è il risultato principale che Skinner ha dimostrato attraverso i suoi esperimenti?

    <p>Le conseguenze di un comportamento influiscono sulla probabilità che si ripeta.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Cosa si intende con 'rinforzo' nel contesto del comportamento?

    <p>Un evento che aumenta la probabilità che un comportamento venga ripetuto.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Qual è una distinzione importante tra Pavlov e Skinner in termini di approccio al comportamento?

    <p>Pavlov si concentrava sul condizionamento classico, mentre Skinner sul condizionamento operante.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Quali sono i tipi principali di recettori gustativi che il nostro sistema del gusto contiene?

    <p>Salato, acido, amaro, dolce, umami</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Cosa sono i calici gustativi?

    <p>Gli organi di trasduzione del gusto</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Qual è uno dei misteri più dibattuti riguardo la coscienza?

    <p>Il problema della mente altrui</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Cosa si intende per fenomenologia nello studio della coscienza?

    <p>La descrizione di come le esperienze appaiono alla persona cosciente</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In che modo le persone giudicano la coscienza degli altri?

    <p>In base alla loro capacità di sentire e agire</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Quale affermazione è vera riguardo alla percezione del gusto?

    <p>La percezione del gusto diminuisce con l'età</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Cosa costituiscono le papille sulla lingua?

    <p>Protrusioni che ospitano i calici gustativi</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Qual è una caratteristica della coscienza secondo la descrizione fornita?

    <p>È un'esperienza soggettiva unica</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Qual è una caratteristica distintiva della coscienza onirica rispetto alla coscienza dello stato di veglia?

    <p>Le immagini e gli eventi sono accettati senza critica.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Che cosa sono i 'residui della giornata' nei sogni?

    <p>Esperienze vissute nello stato di veglia.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Cosa può accompagnare la paralisi del sonno?

    <p>Allucinazioni ipnopompiche o ipnagogiche.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Quale affermazione descrive meglio i terrori notturni?

    <p>Si manifestano come bruschi risvegli con panico intenso.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Qual è una delle difficoltà associate alla memoria dei sogni?

    <p>Difficoltà di ricordare il sogno dopo che è finito.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Che tipo di onde sono presenti durante lo stato di allerta?

    <p>Onde beta</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Qual è la fase del sonno caratterizzata da movimenti oculari rapidi?

    <p>Sonno REM</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Quale disturbo del sonno è caratterizzato dalla difficoltà ad addormentarsi?

    <p>Insonnia</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Cosa descrivono i fusi del sonno e i complessi K nella fase del sonno?

    <p>Interruzioni nel modello d'attività dell'EEG</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Qual è il risultato principale delle ricerche di Dement e Kleitman riguardo ai sogni?

    <p>L'attività onirica avviene in tempo reale</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Qual e' una delle conseguenze dell'assenza di sonno?

    <p>Difficoltà di memoria</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Che tipo di disturbo si verifica quando una persona smette di respirare durante il sonno?

    <p>Apnea del sonno</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Quale stadio del sonno è identificato dalle onde delta?

    <p>Sonno a onde lente</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Study Notes

    General Psychology - Chapter 1

    • Psychology's definition: the scientific study of the mind and behavior.
    • Mind encompasses subjective experience: perceptions, thoughts, memories, and feelings.
    • Behavior refers to observable actions of humans and animals.
    • Philosophy forms the roots of modern psychology, with figures like Plato and Aristotle debating innate knowledge versus empirical learning.
    • Descartes theorized about mind-body dualism, while Hobbes linked the mind to brain activity.
    • Early psychological theories, like phrenology (Gall), attempted to map mental functions to brain regions, though inaccurate. Broca's work on language demonstrated a link between brain and behavior.
    • Helmholtz's work on measuring nerve impulse speed paved the way for scientific psychological studies.
    • Wundt established the first psychology laboratory in 1879, marking the birth of psychology as a scientific discipline.

    General Psychology - Chapter 2

    • The scientific method demands empirical evidence for claims through repeatable and verifiable procedures.
    • Theories are explanations of observed phenomena.
    • The scientific method fosters parsimony (simpler explanations are preferable).
    • Hypotheses are specific testable predictions derived from theories.
    • Observation can be casual or systematic. Systematic observation often employs instruments for precise measurement.
    • Measurement requires operational definitions (concrete, measurable descriptions) and reliable and valid instruments.
    • Demand characteristics influence participants' behavior during observation due to their awareness of being studied.
    • Naturalistic observation allows researchers to study behavior in natural settings, while controlled experiments are more suitable for determining cause-and-effect relationships.
    • Random assignment helps ensure groups are similar before introducing an intervention.
    • Experiments allow for careful manipulation of variables to isolate cause-and-effect relationships.
    • Correlation studies can reveal relationships between variables, but cannot establish cause-and-effect.

    General Psychology - Chapter 4

    • Sensation: the basic stimulation of a sensory organ (e.g., light, sound, pressure).
    • Perception: the organization, identification, and interpretation of a sensation into a meaningful representation.
    • Transduction is the process of transforming physical signals into neural signals.
    • Color perception depends on the activity of cones in the retina that respond to different wavelengths.
    • Color afterimages result from adaptation.
    • Opponent-process theory explains color perception through antagonistic pairs of neurons.
    • Shape perception involves analyzing the positions and orientations of object edges as well as different pathways for object recognition in the brain (ventral or dorsal).
    • Agnosia is a perceptual deficit that affects object recognition.
    • Parallel processing allows the brain to perform multiple tasks simultaneously.
    • The binding problem describes how the brain combines features into a coherent whole.
    • Feature integration theory suggests that focused attention is necessary to bind features.

    General Psychology - Chapter 5

    • Consciousness: subjective experience of the world and the mind.
    • Intentionality: consciousness is always "about" something.
    • Unity: consciousness is a unified whole.
    • Selectivity: consciousness chooses what to focus on.
    • Transience: consciousness is always changing.
    • Minimal consciousness: basic awareness, alertness, and responsiveness.
    • Full consciousness: awareness of oneself and one's mental state.
    • Self-consciousness: awareness of oneself as an object of thought.
    • Subliminal perception: how stimuli presented below conscious awareness can influence judgment or behavior.

    General Psychology - Chapter 6

    • Memory: the capacity to retain and retrieve information.
    • Encoding: transforming information into a storable format.
    • Storage: maintaining information over time
    • Retrieval: recovering stored information
    • Types of encoding: semantic (meaning-based), visual (mental images), and organizational (categorization).
    • Sensory memory: brief storage of sensory information.
    • Iconic memory: visual sensory memory
    • Echoic memory: auditory sensory memory
    • Short-term memory: temporary storage of information that is not sensory.
    • Rehearsal: repeating information to maintain it in short-term memory.
    • Chunking: combining pieces of information into larger units for improved storage
    • Working memory: active maintenance and manipulation of information.
    • Long-term memory: relatively permanent storage of information.
    • Consolidation: strengthening of memories over time.
    • Retrieval cues: information associated with stored information that aids retrieval.
    • State-dependent retrieval: better memory when the retrieval state matches the encoding state.
    • Encoding specificity principle: memory recall is best when the context of retrieval is similar to the encoding context.
    • Forgetting: loss of information from memory.

    General Psychology - Chapter 7

    • Learning: relatively permanent change in behavior or knowledge as a result of experience.
    • Habituation: decreased responsiveness to a stimulus after repeated exposure.
    • Sensitization: increased responsiveness to a stimulus after repeated exposure.
    • Classical Conditioning: a type of learning where a neutral stimulus comes to elicit a response after being paired with a stimulus that naturally elicits that response.
    • Unconditioned stimulus: elicits an unconditioned response naturally.
    • Unconditioned response: unlearned response to a stimulus.
    • Conditioned stimulus: initially neutral stimulus that comes to elicit a conditioned response after being paired with an unconditioned stimulus.
    • Conditioned response: learned response to a conditioned stimulus.
    • Operant Conditioning: a type of learning where consequences of a behavior influence its likelihood to be repeated.
    • Positive reinforcement: presenting a desirable stimulus after a behavior.
    • Negative reinforcement: removing an aversive stimulus after a behavior.
    • Punishment: presenting an aversive stimulus after a behavior, or removing a desirable stimulus, to decrease the likelihood of it being repeated.
    • Shaping: gradually guiding behaviors toward a desired response through reinforcement of successive approximations.
    • Observational learning: acquiring new behaviors by observing others.

    General Psychology - Chapter 8

    • Emotions: feelings that are associated with specific patterns of physiological and behavioral responses.
    • Motivation: the driving force that directs and sustains our thoughts and behaviors
    • Instincts: innate behavioral tendencies.
    • Drives: internal states of tension that motivate behavior to reduce the tension.
    • Homeostasis: the tendency of the body to maintain a constant internal state (temperature, blood sugar).
    • Drive reduction theory: organisms are motivated to reduce these internal states.
    • Hierarchy of Needs: (Maslow) Basic needs (physiological, safety) must be met before higher-order needs (self-actualization) are pursued.
    • Types of motivation: intrinsic (internal rewards) vs. extrinsic (external rewards) and conscious vs. unconscious.

    General Psychology - Chapter 9

    • Language: a system of communication using symbols that are combined according to grammatical rules.
    • Grammar: the rules governing how words and phrases are combined.
    • Phonemes: the basic units of sound in a language.
    • Morphemes: the basic units of meaning in a language.
    • Morphology: the rules that govern how morphemes are combined.
    • Syntax: the rules that govern how words are assembled into phrases and sentences.

    General Psychology - Chapter 10

    • Intelligence: the ability to learn, reason, problem-solve, and adapt to the environment.
    • Intelligence testing: methods to assess cognitive abilities.
    • IQ (Intelligence Quotient): measure of intelligence.
    • Standardization: procedures to ensure consistency across tests.
    • Norms: established scales for comparison.
    • Reliability: extent to which a test yields consistent results
    • Validity: degree to which a test measures what it intends to measure.
    • Specific versus general abilities: are there factors overarching specific abilities or are these abilities independent variables
    • Nature versus nurture: extent to which intelligence is determined by genes vs. environment.
    • Cultural influences on intelligence: how culture affects cognitive skills.

    General Psychology - Chapter 11

    • Development: the pattern of continuity and change in human capabilities that occurs throughout life, including physical, cognitive, social, and emotional domains.
    • Prenatal development: stages of development from conception to birth.
    • Infancy: developmental period from birth to 18-24 months.
    • Motor development: emergence of physical abilities.
    • Cognitive development: changes in the way individuals think and understand the world.
    • Piaget's stages of cognitive development: sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, formal operational.
    • Theory of mind: understanding that others have beliefs, desires, and perspectives different from one's own.
    • Attachment: emotional bond between infant and caregiver.
    • Adolescence: developmental period from puberty to early adulthood.
    • Puberty: period of rapid physical maturation.
    • Identity development: process of forming a sense of self.
    • Early adulthood: period of establishing careers, relationships, and families.
    • Middle adulthood: period of focusing on maintaining existing relationships and raising children.
    • Late adulthood: period of reflecting on life and adjusting to aging.

    General Psychology - Chapter 12

    • Personality: enduring patterns of thoughts, feelings, motives, and behaviors that characterize an individual.
    • Trait approach: understanding personality through stable characteristics or traits.
    • Biological approach: investigating the role of genetics and brain structures in shaping personality.
    • Psychodynamic approach: emphasizing unconscious conflicts and early experiences.
    • Humanistic-existential approach: highlighting personal growth, freedom, and responsibility.
    • Social-cognitive approach: focusing on how thoughts, feelings, and social contexts interact to shape behavior.
    • Self-concept: individual's knowledge and beliefs about themselves.
    • Self-esteem: individual's evaluation of their worth or value.

    General Psychology - Chapter 13

    • Stress: psychological response to challenging or demanding situations.
    • Stressors: events or conditions that trigger stress responses.
    • General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS): three-stage physiological response to stress: alarm, resistance, and exhaustion.
    • Immune system: body's defense system against illness.
    • Cardiovascular system: heart and blood vessels.
    • Psychological factors, such as personality traits (Type A), social support, and coping strategies, are related to stress and health outcomes
    • Health psychology: studying psychological factors related to health and illness.

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