Respiratory System and Function

Respiratory System

• Surfactant reduces surface tension in the alveoli, allowing them to inflate more easily upon expiration.
• Mucous membranes moisten and filter air
• Cilia are hairlike structures that filter air

Respiratory Membrane Function

• The respiratory membrane separates air in the alveoli from blood in surrounding capillaries.
• The respiratory mucosa lines most air distribution tubes.
• Mucous membranes line passageways leading to the outside of the body.
• Serous membranes line closed body cavities.

Respiratory System Functions

• The respiratory system warms, humidifies, and filters the air.

Respiratory Mucosa

• The respiratory mucosa consists of pseudostratified ciliated epithelium with goblet cells.

Lower Respiratory Tract Components

• The lower respiratory tract consists of the trachea, segments of the bronchial tree, and the lungs.
• The larynx is part of the upper respiratory tract.

Pharynx Divisions

• The three divisions of the pharynx are the nasopharynx, oropharynx, and laryngopharynx.

Respiratory System Functions

• Air distribution, gas exchange in the lungs and tissue, and homeostasis of pH are associated with the respiratory system.

Oxygen Pathway

• Oxygen passes through the respiratory system in the following order: nasal cavities, pharynx, larynx, trachea, and lungs.
• Air flows from upper to lower respiratory tract structures before entering the alveoli for gas exchange.

Respiratory Tract Lining

• The majority of the remaining respiratory tract is lined with a ciliated mucous membrane.

Respiratory Membrane

• A thin barrier where gases are exchanged between alveolar air and blood
• Composed of the alveolar wall, interstitial fluid, and the wall of a pulmonary capillary

Upper Respiratory Tract Structures

• Nose serves as the entry point
• Cilia helps filter foreign particles
• Pharyngeal tonsils collection of lymphatic tissue
• Nasal cavity in the interior portion of the nose
• Sinuses are Air-filled cavities in the bones around the nose
• Pharynx (throat) that protect the entrance to the larynx
• Glottis includes opening between vocal cords
• Palatine tonsils form masses of lymphatic tissue in oropharynx
• Oropharynx Located between the nasopharynx and the laryngopharynx
• Epiglottis protects the entrance to the larynx

Nasal Cavity

• The nasal cavity is divided by the nasal septum.
• Damage to the septum can cause nosebleeds (epistaxis) due to the septum's rich blood supply.

Maxillary Sinuses

• The maxillary sinuses are the largest paranasal sinuses and extend into the maxilla on either side of the nose.

Respiratory Membrane

• The respiratory membrane has pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium with goblet cells and a rich blood supply.

Conchae

• Conchae creates greater surface area, to warm and moisten air.

Eustachian Tube

• The eustachian tube connects the middle ear with the nasopharynx.
• The nasopharynx also contains the adenoids, or pharyngeal tonsils.

Vocal Cords

• The lower folds form true vocal cords.

Larynx Framework

• The larynx framework consists largely of cartilages.

Paranasal Sinuses

• There are four pairs (eight total) of paranasal sinuses: frontal, maxillary, ethmoid, and sphenoid.

Palatine Tonsils

• Palatine tonsils are behind and below the pillars of the fauces in the oropharynx

Pharynx

• The pharynx is a passageway for both food and air.
• The pharynx divides into three sections: the nasopharynx, oropharynx, and laryngopharynx.

Lung Pressure

• Expiration occurs when the pressure in the lung is greater than atmospheric pressure.
• Inspiration happens with a decrease in air pressure within the thoracic cavity.
• Lung tissue collapses with atelectasis.
• Bronchioles are obstructed due to infection

Terminology

• Trachea and windpipe are synonymous terms.
• Inspiration and inhalation represent the same process.
• Pharynx and throat are interchangeable terms.
• Pulmonary ventilation and breathing are equivalent.

Vital Capacity

• Vital capacity is the sum of tidal volume, inspiratory reserve volume, and expiratory reserve volume.

Orthopnea

• Assuming a sitting position facilitates easier breathing in dyspnea, whereas eupnea represents normal breathing.

Atmospheric Pressure

• Standard atmospheric pressure is 760 mm Hg.

Boyle's Law

• Boyle's law states that the volume of a gas varies inversely with pressure at a constant temperature.

Blood Oxygenation

• Approximately 97% of the blood's hemoglobin has united with oxygen by the time the blood leaves lung capillaries.

Pneumonia

• Pneumonia is the inflammation of the lungs: alveoli and bronchi become plugged with thick exudate (fluid).

Emphysema

• Emphysema: walls of alveoli tear and cannot be repaired.

Expiratory Reserve Volume

• Expiratory reserve volume refers to the amount of air that can be maximally exhaled following maximal inhalation.

Collapsing Alveoli

• Surfactant prevents each alveolus from collapsing as air moves in and out during respiration.

CO2 Transportation

• Most carbon dioxide is transported through the circulatory system as bicarbonate ions.

Arterial CO2 Concentration

• Specialized chemoreceptors in the walls of the aorta and carotid arteries are sensitive to changes in arterial carbon dioxide concentration.

Lung Lobes

• The left lung has two lobes.

Mediastinum

• The mediastinum is in the midportion of the thoracic cavity and contains the esophagus, trachea, large blood vessels, and the heart.

Air Flow

• A pressure gradient determines the flow of air into or out of the lungs.

Hypoventilation

• Hypoventilation: carbon dioxide levels would stimulate ventilation.

Lobectomy

• A lobectomy involves the surgical removal of a lobe of a lung.

Dyspnea

• Dyspnea, known as labored or difficulty breathing.

CO2 Blood Forms

• Over two thirds of carbon dioxide is transported as bicarbonate ions.
• One fifth to one quarter of carbon dioxide is transported as carbaminohemoglobin.
• A small amount of carbon dioxide dissolves in plasma and is transported as a solute.

Accessory Digestive Organs

• The mouth is a main organ, while the liver, tongue, and pancreas are accessory organs.

Uvula's Function

• The uvula and soft palate prevent food and liquid from entering the nasal cavities.

Hard Palate Structure

• The hard palate is bony and consists of palatine and maxillary bones.

Saliva Production

• Salivary glands produce ~1 liter of saliva per day containing mucus and enzymes for chemical digestion of carbohydrates.

Deciduous Teeth

• 20 baby teeth are made up of Incisors, canines and molars

Deciduous Teeth vs Permanent Teeth

• Deciduous teeth include incisors, canines, and molars, but not premolars (which permanent teeth have).

Digestive Organs

• The gallbladder is not a main digestive organ, whereas the stomach, small intestine, and large intestine all are.

Leukoplakia

• Smokers often develop leukoplakia that can develop into tumors.

Digestion Functions

• The digestive system alters physical/chemical composition of food

Enamel

• Contains 97% inorganic material, and 3% organic material + water.

Wisdom Teeth

• Wisdom teeth erupt sometime after 17 years of age.

###Gingivitis definition

• Gingivitis involves inflammation or infection of the gums due to inadequate oral hygiene or other conditions.

Teeth

• Adult have 32 comprising which consist of: incisors, canines, premolars and molars.

Digestion

• Foods are processed through: Digestion, absorption, and metabolism.

Salivary Amylase

• Salivary amylase begins the digestion of dietary carbohydrates in the mouth.

Gastrointestinal Tract Layers

• The layers of the GI tract moving from outside to inside: Serosa > Muscularis > Submucosa > Mucosa.

Sphincters

• The pyloric sphincter controls the opening of the stomach into the small intestine.

Duodenum

• The duodenum is the portion of the small intestine closest to the stomach.

Bicarbonates Function

• Bicarbonates neutralize hydrochloric acid in the gastrointestinal tract.

Liver Cirrhosis

• Liver cirrhosis is a degenerative liver condition.

Stomach Hydrochloric Acid

• The stomach produces Hydrochloric Acid.
• The pancreas produces an alkaline secretion and the small intestine produce hydrochloric acid.

Intestine Length

• The ileum is the longest portion.

Pancreatic Cancer

• Pancreatic cancer is rarely treatable and is often fatal.

CCK Hormone

• Cholecystokinin (CCK) stimulates the gallbladder

Intestinal Abnormalities

• Ascites accumulation of fluid
• Constipation Decreased intestinal motility
• Diverticulitis - abnormal saclike wall with inflammation of abnormal saclike herniations
• Crohn disease Autoimmune inflammatory condition
• Diarrhea Increased intestinal motility
• Colitis - General term for large intestine inflammation

Pyloric Sphincter location

• The pyloric sphincter does not directly associate with the large intestine.
• The cecum, sigmoid, and appendix do.

Large Intestine Order

• Anatomical sequence: ascending-> transverse-descending->sigmoid.

Hepatic Flexure

• The hepatic flexure is the right angle made by the transverse and ascending colon.

Mesentery

• The mesentery attaches the small intestine to the lumbar aspect of the posterior abdominal wall.

Appendix Facts

• All of the following relate to the "vermiform appendix" It contains lymphatic tissue, but contains no function during digestion.

Appendix

• The vermiform appendix connects to the cecum of the large intestine.

Haustra Pouches

• The large intestine is the ring of haustra pouches.

Peritoneum lining

• Peritoneum Lining: Lines the abdominal wall: parietal layer. covers the organs is called the visceral layer

Microvilli Location

• Microvillus are located with the small intestine.

Intestinal Capillaries

• Monosaccharides and amino acids are absorbed into the blood in the intestinal capillaries.

Mechanical Emulsification

• Bile causes mechanical emulsification.

Starch

• Starch is a polysaccharide

Lipase vs Protease

• Lipase is not a protein-digesting enzyme

Hollow Motility

• Peristalsis produces smooth muscle

Hydrolyze Poly

• Brush border enzymes do not hydrolyze polysaccharides

Amylase

• Saliva contains amylase.

Protein

• Pepsin digests protein.

Deglutition

• Degulition is synonymous to swallowing.

Glucose

• The principal sugar is glucose.

Nephron Location

• The nephron is the urinary systems functional unit.

Proximal Tubule

• Water is reabsorbed by osmosis in the tubule

Glomerular Capsule

• The top like capsule forms the glomerulus.

Cuplike Collecting

• Calyces form the cuplike collecting structures.

Afferent Arterioles Function

• Afferent arteriole delivers blood to the glomerulus.

Decrease Filtration

• The drop in systemic pressure will cause decrease in filtration.

Urine Formation

• Catabolism is not associated to urine functions whereas all of these processes are related::Secretion, Reabsorption + Filtration

Oliguria Scanty

• Scanty amount of urine

Kidney Description

• Described as Bean Shape

Kidney Functions

• Regulate levels -> Mineral ions = kidney function.

Urinary Bladder

• Three openings in the urinary bladder.

Urinary Bladder

• Reservoir for urine before it leaves.

Urethra System

• Urethra as part of two body systems.

Ureter transports

• The tube transports from the kidney.

Voiding terms

• Non-voiding term -> Urinary meatus

Incontinence Definition

• Incontinence: voiding involuntarily

Kidney Back Up of Urine

• Kidney backup = hydronephrosis

Renal Failure

• Renal failure = stage 4 not recognized

Voiding mechanism

• Begins with the muscle-sphincter’s relaxation is the voiding.

Reproduction facts

• Testes are organs of the reproduction system

Epididymis

• The Epididymis does not include a secreting gland.

Epididymis is ~ 20 ft

• The tightly coiled tube measures is 20 ft in length.

Precursors: Spermatogonia

• Cell precursor = the spermatogonia

Sperm Mitochondrial Location

• Sperm, mitochondria: Located -> Piece.

Seminal Fluid

• Not vas deferens -> to secrete seminal fluid. Seminal Vesicle

Fructose Sugar for Sperm

• For sperm -> Seminal vesicle is correct

Undescended -

• Crypto (m) == The undescended

3 Degrees C

• 3 is the degrees optimal temp (sperm) -> c Below Normal Reproductive : Support : Foreskin

Prepuce Male Skin

• Skin male -> Prepuce Uterus/fallopian

Fallopian -

• The Area -> Fallopian : enter Membranous - endometric uterus (tissue)

Endometrium Definition

• The inner lining is the "endo" term

Sex-Egg Formation

• Sex-egg =oogensis.

Repro

• Anal & regi orifice = perineum

External -

• Ovum fertilizes = Fallopian External

###Clitoris

• The erectile tissue -> The " Clitoris"

###Ovulation

• The Ovulation -> At day = 14 Acess
• The ovary does not belong acess org