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Questions and Answers
What is the main function of alveoli in the respiratory system?
What is the main function of alveoli in the respiratory system?
What prevents the alveolar walls from collapsing and sticking together?
What prevents the alveolar walls from collapsing and sticking together?
Where is the respiratory surface located within the lungs?
Where is the respiratory surface located within the lungs?
How is oxygen transported in the bloodstream?
How is oxygen transported in the bloodstream?
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What happens when carbon dioxide diffuses out of the membrane in the alveoli?
What happens when carbon dioxide diffuses out of the membrane in the alveoli?
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Where does gas exchange primarily occur in the respiratory system?
Where does gas exchange primarily occur in the respiratory system?
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Which chamber of the heart receives blood from the lungs via the pulmonary veins?
Which chamber of the heart receives blood from the lungs via the pulmonary veins?
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Through which vessel does blood leave the left ventricle to reach the body tissues through the systemic circuit?
Through which vessel does blood leave the left ventricle to reach the body tissues through the systemic circuit?
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Where does the aorta convey blood to, leading through the body's capillary beds in the head and arms?
Where does the aorta convey blood to, leading through the body's capillary beds in the head and arms?
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Which large vein receives blood from the head, neck, and forelimbs?
Which large vein receives blood from the head, neck, and forelimbs?
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Where do the two venae cavae empty blood into?
Where do the two venae cavae empty blood into?
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Which type of joints allow for smooth movements between adjacent bones?
Which type of joints allow for smooth movements between adjacent bones?
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What is the most common joint injury?
What is the most common joint injury?
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Which injury may require surgery due to a tear in the cruciate ligaments in knee joints?
Which injury may require surgery due to a tear in the cruciate ligaments in knee joints?
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What is a common cause of reduced bone density in postmenopausal women?
What is a common cause of reduced bone density in postmenopausal women?
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What is the main characteristic of arthritis?
What is the main characteristic of arthritis?
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Which type of muscles are responsible for the stretch reflex and regulating body temperature?
Which type of muscles are responsible for the stretch reflex and regulating body temperature?
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What is the role of smooth muscles in the walls of arteries and arterioles?
What is the role of smooth muscles in the walls of arteries and arterioles?
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What is a common consequence of atherosclerosis?
What is a common consequence of atherosclerosis?
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What is the main cause of a stroke according to the text?
What is the main cause of a stroke according to the text?
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What is responsible for delivering cholesterol to cells for membrane production?
What is responsible for delivering cholesterol to cells for membrane production?
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What homeostatic mechanism regulates arterial blood pressure by altering arteriole diameter?
What homeostatic mechanism regulates arterial blood pressure by altering arteriole diameter?
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How does gravity affect blood pressure according to the text?
How does gravity affect blood pressure according to the text?
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What makes up the vertebral column?
What makes up the vertebral column?
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Which type of fishes have a skeletal system consisting primarily of cartilage?
Which type of fishes have a skeletal system consisting primarily of cartilage?
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What is the function of the intervertebral disks in the vertebral column?
What is the function of the intervertebral disks in the vertebral column?
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Which type of bone is characterized by having a dense structure with many concentric rings of mineralized bone tissue?
Which type of bone is characterized by having a dense structure with many concentric rings of mineralized bone tissue?
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What is the main function of osteoclasts in bone tissue?
What is the main function of osteoclasts in bone tissue?
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Which process involves embryonic cells giving rise to osteoblasts that secrete components of the bone matrix?
Which process involves embryonic cells giving rise to osteoblasts that secrete components of the bone matrix?
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What is the primary function of the periosteum in bones?
What is the primary function of the periosteum in bones?
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'Yellow marrow can convert to red marrow in cases of extreme blood loss.' This statement is primarily highlighting the role of yellow marrow in:
'Yellow marrow can convert to red marrow in cases of extreme blood loss.' This statement is primarily highlighting the role of yellow marrow in:
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'Grasshoppers, cockroaches, and lobsters have an exoskeleton.' This statement refers to an external body part that serves as:
'Grasshoppers, cockroaches, and lobsters have an exoskeleton.' This statement refers to an external body part that serves as:
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Study Notes
Vertebrates and Invertebrates
- Vertebrates have a backbone, belonging to Phylum Chordata, with classes Agnatha, Osteichthyes, and others.
- Invertebrates lack a backbone.
Vertebrate Skeletal Systems
- Cartilaginous fishes (sharks) have skeletons made of cartilage.
- Other vertebrates have skeletons composed of both cartilage and bone.
Vertebral Column
- The backbone supports the body and serves as an attachment point for muscles.
- It protects the spinal cord, which runs through a canal inside it.
- The vertebral column consists of individual vertebrae with intervertebral disks (cartilage) between them, acting as shock absorbers and flex points.
Exoskeleton vs Endoskeleton
- Exoskeletons are external body parts that receive the force of muscle contractions, found in animals like grasshoppers, cockroaches, crustaceans, and lobsters.
- Endoskeletons are internal frameworks of hard parts, found in vertebrates.
Bone Anatomy
- Adult humans have 206 bones, ranging in size from the middle ear bones to the massive femur (thighbone).
- Long bones (e.g., femur, limb bones) have osteons, bone cells (osteocytes), and an extracellular matrix containing protein collagen and hardened by calcium and phosphorus deposits.
- Cancellous bone (spongy bone) is strong yet lightweight, with a matrix containing many cavities.
- Cortical bone (compact bone) is dense and makes up the shaft of long bones, consisting of many concentric rings of mineralized bone tissue with living bone cells in between.
- Periosteum is a dense irregular connective tissue enveloping bones, except for the surface of joints.
Bone Cells
- There are four cell types in bones:
- Osteogenic cells (undifferentiated stem cells that develop into osteoblasts)
- Osteoblasts (form bone matrix)
- Osteocytes (maintain bone tissue)
- Osteoclasts (resorb bone)
Ossification (Bone Formation)
- Intramembranous ossification occurs on or within fibrous connective tissues, leading to bone formation in the skull and other areas.
- Endochondral ossification occurs in cartilage, contributing to longitudinal growth and replaced by bone in most bones.
Joints
- Functional classes of joints:
- Immoveable joints
- Slightly moveable joints
- Freely moveable joints
- Joint diseases:
- Sprains (overstretched or torn ligaments)
- Torn meniscus (in the knee)
- Osteoporosis (bone loss outpacing bone formation)
- Arthritis (chronic inflammation)
Muscular System
- Skeletal muscles are voluntary and have functions like:
- Stretch reflex
- Regulating body temperature
- Attachment (e.g., the diaphragm)
Alveoli
- Alveoli are thin-walled pockets where gas exchange occurs.
- Slightly oily surfactant prevents alveolar walls from collapsing and sticking together.
- Oxygen is higher in the alveoli and CO2 is higher in the capillaries.
- Gas exchange occurs at the lungs and in body cells, moving oxygen into cells and CO2 out.
Cardiovascular System
- Blood flow:
- Oxygenated blood from the lungs returns to the heart via the pulmonary veins.
- Deoxygenated blood from the body returns to the heart via the superior and inferior vena cava.
- Blood pressure:
- Systolic pressure: highest when the heart contracts during ventricular systole.
- Diastolic pressure: lower pressure when the ventricles are relaxed.
- Homeostatic mechanisms regulate arterial blood pressure by altering arteriole diameter.
Lymphatic System
- The adult human body loses 4-8 L of fluid from capillaries to surrounding tissues.
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