Research Methods in Social Psychology

Examples include learning what we should and shouldn’t do, like, or think; being motivated to understand others; becoming concerned about what others think of us; and being influenced by actual or imagined social situations every day.

The importance of being social shows up in every aspect of our lives because through other people, we learn what we should and shouldn’t do, like, or think; we are motivated to understand others; and we become concerned about what others think of us.

The aim of the subfield of psychology named social psychology is to understand how human thought and behavior is influenced by the social context.

The text describes how even when we are alone, we are influenced by people who are not physically present at that moment but nevertheless affect us through our memories, feelings, and thoughts about them.

Examples include relationships with parents, friends, teachers, classmates, family members, neighbors, lovers, bosses, colleagues, and authorities.

The text describes how throughout our lives, we develop relationships with a wide variety of people, and this is an indication of our social nature.

Innate abilities mentioned in the text include recognizing voices and responding to faces as newborns, and learning languages in order to communicate with others as young children.

The attempt to explain and predict behavior based on social information.

Social cognition, social influence, and social behavior.

Social perception, stereotypes and prejudice, self-concept, and attitudes.

The ways individuals' thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are affected by others, including persuasion, conformity, obedience, and social change.

It led to an expansion of research in social psychology, the study of topics such as persuasion and attitude change, the forced migration of European researchers, and a focus on understanding the causes of extreme obedience and horrendous crimes.

Milgram's obedience experiment, Asch's conformity experiment, and Zimbardo's prison experiment.

Scientific methods and laboratory experiments to test hypotheses.

Clinical psychology focuses on mental illnesses or problematic thoughts or behaviors.

Social psychologists are interested in 'normal' everyday behaviors and interactions.

Personality psychology focuses on individual differences in general.

Social cognition, social influence, and social behavior.

The origins of modern social psychology can be traced back to WWII.

Social psychology is characterized by its focus on the power of the social context over the individual and the use of scientific methods.

Education, business and management, health care, and public policy.

Are extraverted people more aggressive than people who are less extraverted.

The observed aggressive behavior is a symptom of a clinical diagnosis in the field of study.

The social context has a significant impact on individuals, influencing their thoughts, feelings, and behaviors. Social psychology examines how individuals are affected by the presence, actions, and characteristics of others in their social environment.

The experimental method has played a crucial role in establishing the credibility of social psychology by providing empirical evidence to support theories and hypotheses. It allows researchers to systematically manipulate variables and observe the effects on social behavior.

Social psychology differentiates from other social sciences by focusing on the individual and using experimental methods to study social behavior, while fields like sociology and cultural anthropology focus on group-level social contexts and detailed observations of cultural and behavioral changes over time.

Social psychological research contributes to various areas, including public policy, education, business, and the justice system by providing insights into social behavior, decision-making, and interpersonal relationships.

Cultural psychology studies cross-cultural differences in psychological processes over time, while clinical psychology focuses on mental illnesses and abnormal thoughts/behaviors. In contrast, social psychology focuses on the influence of the social context on normal everyday behaviors and interactions.

Sociologists explore social contexts at a group level, using surveys and demographic data, while social psychologists focus on the individual's response to the social situation and consider people's subjective interpretations of social situations.

Social psychologists have studied persuasion, group behavior, interpersonal relationships, and policy decisions, among other areas, to understand the impact of the social context on individuals and their interactions.

Observation = Raw data of social perception Attribution = Expression of an individual's personality as the source or cause of their behavior Integration = Process of using evidence to support a person's impression or inference about others Confirmation = Confirming judgments about social roles, rules, relationships, context, or characteristics of others

Facial expressions = Way people communicate feelings and emotions nonverbally Tone of voice = Nonverbal communication method conveying emotional context Hand gestures = Form of nonverbal communication through movement of hands Body position or movement = Nonverbal way people communicate without words

Social knowledge = Refers to one's knowledge of social roles, norms, and schemas surrounding social situations and interactions Social cues = Used to make judgments about social roles, rules, relationships, context, or the characteristics of others Social roles = Part of social knowledge related to expected behaviors in specific positions within a group Social schemas = Mental frameworks used to organize and interpret information about social situations and interactions

Persons = One of the sources used as evidence in supporting a person's impression or inference about others Situations = One of the sources used as evidence in supporting a person's impression or inference about others Behavior = One of the sources used as evidence in supporting a person's impression or inference about others Interplay of three sources = Raw data of social perception involving persons, situations, and behavior

Rolling eyes = Example of nonverbal communication indicating disagreement Nodding head = Nonverbal way of expressing agreement or understanding Shrugging shoulders = Nonverbal gesture indicating uncertainty or lack of knowledge Crossing arms = Nonverbal signal conveying defensiveness or resistance

Social perception = Involves observing persons, situations, and behaviors to form impressions Physical traits = Influence first impressions, such as small eyes, low eyebrows, and angular chin being associated with strength and competence Nonverbal communication = Influences social perception and can lead to quick judgments Attribution = The use of information gathered through observation to understand and rationalize causes of behavior

Fundamental attribution error = The tendency to attribute others' actions to internal traits rather than external circumstances, which can be a barrier to empathizing with others Two-step process of attribution = Suggests people automatically make internal attributions before considering external factors Internal attribution = Assumes individuals are acting a certain way due to something about them, like personality or attitude Psychological research on attribution = Began with Fritz Heider in 1958 and has since been developed by others

Prior experiences and cultural background = Shape the way situations are perceived and understood, playing a role in shaping types of experiences Observations from persons, situations, and behaviors = Used to make inferences about inner dispositions Psychological research on attribution = Shaped by prior experiences and cultural background Nonverbal communication = Includes facial expressions, body language, and vocal intonations

Small eyes, low eyebrows, angular chin = Associated with strength and competence Physical traits of persons = Influence first impressions First impressions = Influenced by physical traits such as small eyes, low eyebrows, and angular chin Strength and competence = Associated with certain physical traits

Two-step process of attribution = Suggests people automatically make internal attributions before considering external factors Fundamental attribution error = Tendency to attribute others' actions to internal traits rather than external circumstances, which can be a barrier to empathizing with others Internal attribution = Assumes individuals are acting a certain way due to something about them, like personality or attitude Attribution = The use of information gathered through observation to understand and rationalize causes of behavior

Facial expressions, body language, vocal intonations = Influences social perception and can lead to quick judgments Nonverbal communication = Can lead to quick judgments in social perception Quick judgments = Result from nonverbal communication such as facial expressions, body language, and vocal intonations Social perception = Influenced by nonverbal communication such as facial expressions, body language, and vocal intonations

Fritz Heider in 1958 = Began psychological research on attribution Development of psychological research on attribution by others = Followed Fritz Heider's initial work in 1958 Psychological research on attribution = Began with Fritz Heider in 1958 and has since been developed by others Attribution research starting point = Traced back to Fritz Heider's work in 1958

Internal attributions = Assume individuals are acting a certain way due to something about them, like personality or attitude Individuals' behavior explanation based on personality or attitude = "Internal attributions" assumption Personality or attitude influence on behavior explanation = "Internal attributions" association Behavior explanation based on something about individuals themselves = "Internal attributions" connection

Tendency in attributing others' actions to internal traits rather than external circumstances = "Fundamental attribution error" definition Barrier to empathizing with others caused by attribution tendency = "Fundamental attribution error" consequence Attribution tendency hindering empathy towards others = "Fundamental attribution error" impact on empathy Fundamental attribution error description focus = "Tendency to attribute others' actions to internal traits rather than external circumstances"

Automatic internal attributions before considering external factors = "Two-step process of attribution" characteristic Initial internal attributions followed by external factors consideration = "Two-step process of attribution" sequence Two-step process in making attributions starting point = "Automatic internal attributions before considering external factors" association Attribution process involving initial internal assumptions followed by external considerations = "Two-step process of attribution" involvement

External attribution = Inference that an individual is acting a certain way due to the situation he or she is in Jones's correspondent inference theory = People learn about other individuals from behavior that is chosen freely, not anticipated, and results in a small number of favorable outcomes Kelley's covariation theory = Individuals make attributions by utilizing the covariation principle, which claims that people attribute behavior to the factors present when a certain behavior occurs and absent when it does not occur Information integration theory = Impressions are made from the perceiver's personal dispositions and a weighted average of the target individual's characteristics

Consensus = If a single individual and a large majority of individuals behave similarly in reaction to a specific stimulus, then the individual's behavior is attributed to the stimulus and is high in consensus Distinctiveness = The individual's behavior due to a specific stimulus should be compared to the individual's behavior in reaction to other stimuli within the same broader category Consistency = Used to see what happens to the behavior at another time when the individual and the stimulus both remain unchanged Integration = Unless a snap judgement is made from observing persons, situations, or behavior, people integrate the dispositions to form impressions

Edward Jones and Keith Davis = Correspondent inference theory Harold Kelley = Covariation theory Norman H. Anderson = Information integration theory Gordon Allport = Not mentioned in the provided text

Degree of choice = Basis for inferences according to Jones's correspondent inference theory Expectedness of behavior = Basis for inferences according to Jones's correspondent inference theory Intentions or motives behind behavior = Basis for inferences according to Jones's correspondent inference theory Cultural influences on attribution = Not mentioned in the provided text

External attribution = Assumption that most individuals would respond in the same way in a similar situation Internal attribution = Assumption that a person's behavior is due to his or her personality Situational attribution = Modifying attribution by factoring in the person's situation after assuming behavior is due to personality Behavioral attribution = Not mentioned in the provided text

Covariation principle = Claims that people attribute behavior to factors present when a certain behavior occurs and absent when it does not occur Snap judgment = Impressions made from observing persons, situations, or behavior without integrating dispositions Weighted average of characteristics = Impressions made from perceiver's personal dispositions and target individual's characteristics according to information integration theory Attribution modification = Modifying initial assumptions about a person's behavior by factoring in situational influences

Correspondent inference theory = Learning about other individuals from behavior that is chosen freely, not anticipated, and results in a small number of favorable outcomes Covariation principle = Utilized by individuals to make attributions based on factors present or absent during specific behaviors Information integration theory = Forming impressions from personal dispositions and characteristics of others External attribution = Inference that an individual is acting a certain way due to the situation he or she is in

Correspondent inference theory = Edward Jones and Keith Davis Covariation theory = Harold Kelley Information integration theory = Norman H. Anderson Social identity theory = Not mentioned in the provided text

Personal dispositions = Factors used by perceivers as a basis for forming impressions of others according to information integration theory Frame of reference = 'Standard' used by people when forming impressions of others, leading to differences among perceivers according to information integration theory Snap judgment = 'Quick' impressions made from observing persons, situations, or behaviors without integrating dispositions according to information integration theory Attributional biases = 'Errors' or tendencies in making attributions based on situational or dispositional factors

Consensus information = 'Shared' behavioral reactions leading to high consensus attributions based on Kelley's covariation theory Distinctiveness information = 'Unique' behavioral reactions compared within broader category leading to distinctiveness attributions based on Kelley's covariation theory Consistency information = 'Stable' behavioral reactions across time leading to consistency attributions based on Kelley's covariation theory Situational influences on perception = 'External' factors modifying initial assumptions about a person's behavior based on Jones's correspondent inference theory