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Questions and Answers

What type of hypothesis predicts that there will be no effect or difference?

  • Alternative hypothesis
  • Null hypothesis (correct)
  • Two-tailed hypothesis
  • One-tailed hypothesis

    • What is the term for the maximum acceptable probability of making a Type 1 error?

  • P-value
  • Alpha level (correct)
  • Significance level (correct)
  • Confidence interval

    • What does a p-value of 0.01 indicate?

  • There is a 1% chance of observing the data if the null hypothesis is true. (correct)
  • There is a 1% chance of rejecting the null hypothesis.
  • There is a 99% chance of observing the data if the null hypothesis is true.
  • There is a 99% chance of rejecting the null hypothesis.

    • What is the most common type of hypothesis used in research?

    <p>Two-tailed hypothesis (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the effect of a confounding variable on a research study?

    <p>Confounding variables increase the likelihood of a Type 1 error. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a longitudinal design?

    <p>A research design where data is collected repeatedly over time. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of data has a meaningful zero?

    <p>Ratio data (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a 'false positive' error in hypothesis testing?

    <p>Type 1 error (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main purpose of the Chi-squared test?

    <p>To assess the relationship between two categorical variables. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the difference between a one-tailed and a two-tailed hypothesis?

    <p>A one-tailed hypothesis predicts the direction of the effect, while a two-tailed hypothesis does not. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of a falsifiable hypothesis?

    <p>It must be proven true. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the statistical significance level generally set at?

    <p>0.05 (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What kind of research design is most suitable for establishing causal relationships?

    <p>Experimental design (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of data has an order but no standardized difference between categories?

    <p>Ordinal data (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does failing to reject the null hypothesis imply?

    <p>There is not enough evidence to support the alternative hypothesis. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of error occurs when we conclude that there is an effect when there is actually none?

    <p>Type 1 error (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of the p-value?

    <p>It directly measures the likelihood of committing a Type I or Type II error. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary importance of using appropriate research methods in psychology?

    <p>To draw conclusions that are reliable and valid (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is an example of a qualitative research method?

    <p>Interviews focusing on personal experiences (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the term 'reliability' imply in psychological research?

    <p>The consistency and stability of measurement over time (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why is sample selection critical in psychological research?

    <p>To represent the larger population accurately (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following statements best describes ethical considerations in research?

    <p>They prioritize participants' rights and well-being (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a characteristic of a valid hypothesis?

    <p>It must be specific and define the variables involved. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following best describes bimodal distribution?

    <p>A distribution that shows two distinct peaks. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why is the normal distribution important in hypothesis testing?

    <p>It provides a standard framework for calculating probabilities. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does a testable hypothesis require?

    <p>A hypothesis that can be examined through experiments or observations. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which statement about hypothesis testing is incorrect?

    <p>It can involve proving a hypothesis without supporting data. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What describes a case study focused on unique or significant cases?

    <p>Intrinsic (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of interview is characterized by open-ended questions and a natural conversation flow?

    <p>Unstructured (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a major advantage of structured interviews?

    <p>Easy replication and analysis (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of research involves the researcher participating in the environment being studied?

    <p>Ethnography (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following imposes limitations due to predefined questions?

    <p>Structured interviews (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a notable disadvantage of unstructured interviews?

    <p>Difficult to analyze responses (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does thematic analysis help identify?

    <p>Patterns across multiple data sources (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a primary advantage of focus group interviews?

    <p>In-depth collective data (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a key characteristic of content analysis?

    <p>Studies communication through various data sources (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which research method has a primary focus on cultural immersion?

    <p>Ethnography (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a common challenge associated with observational research?

    <p>Observer bias (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of qualitative data is collected through existing documents and media?

    <p>Secondary data (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a notable downside of conducting interviews for qualitative research?

    <p>Requires skilled interviewers (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of interview combines elements of both structured and unstructured formats?

    <p>Semi-structured (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does validity refer to in research measurement?

    <p>The accuracy of a measure and whether it measures what it is supposed to (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of reliability assesses the degree of agreement among different raters?

    <p>Inter-rater reliability (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is one of the key ethical principles in research?

    <p>Informed consent (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In qualitative research, which characteristic emphasizes understanding experiences from the participant's perspective?

    <p>Subjectivity (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which method is NOT typically associated with qualitative research?

    <p>Surveys with numerical scales (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does external validity refer to in research findings?

    <p>The degree to which findings can be generalized to other contexts (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is a potential threat to reliability in research?

    <p>Experimenter effects (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which aspect of qualitative research focuses on establishing patterns or themes within data?

    <p>Thematic analysis (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the purpose of ethics committees in research?

    <p>To review research designs for potential risks and benefits (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT a type of qualitative research method?

    <p>Quantitative surveys (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary objective of thematic analysis?

    <p>To identify patterns or ideas across multiple data sources (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which aspect is NOT typically managed by an effective moderator during a focus group?

    <p>Providing personal opinions on the topics (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What differentiates narrative analysis from thematic analysis?

    <p>Narrative analysis examines the form and structure of stories (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT a step in the six-step process of thematic analysis by Braun & Clarke?

    <p>Defining and naming research objectives (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does discourse analysis primarily focus on?

    <p>How language use reflects or challenges social norms (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is triangulation in the context of observations?

    <p>Introducing a third party into the observation process (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In which type of analysis would one focus on the arrangement of words and the meaning conveyed?

    <p>Discourse analysis (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the goal of grounded theory analysis?

    <p>To develop a theory grounded in data collection (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following methods is typically used to encourage participation in focus groups?

    <p>Using probe questions to explore deeper insights (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the purpose of calculating expected frequencies in a chi-squared test?

    <p>To assess the association between observed and expected values. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In a chi-squared test, when is the null hypothesis rejected?

    <p>When the p-value is less than or equal to 0.05. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT a requirement for conducting a chi-squared test?

    <p>Each category must have observations from more than one individual. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of errors does setting an alpha level help to minimize in hypothesis testing?

    <p>Type I error primarily when set at a=.05. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the formula for calculating expected frequencies in a contingency table?

    <p>Row total multiplied by column total, divided by grand total. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which software can be used to conduct a chi-squared test according to the content?

    <p>JASP and Excel. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which statement correctly describes the role of power in hypothesis testing?

    <p>It is the probability of correctly rejecting the null hypothesis when it is false. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the critical threshold value for p that typically indicates significance in hypothesis testing?

    <p>0.05. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of data is suitable for use in a chi-squared test?

    <p>Nominal and ordinal data. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What do observed values represent in a chi-squared test?

    <p>The actual counts recorded from the sample. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of chi-squared test is appropriate when analyzing one categorical variable?

    <p>Chi squared goodness of fit test (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which condition must be met regarding expected frequencies for a chi-squared test to be valid?

    <p>At least 80% of expected frequencies must be 5 or greater (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In a chi-squared test, what does a larger chi-squared value indicate?

    <p>Greater difference between observed and expected frequencies (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT an assumption for conducting a chi-squared test?

    <p>The sample is drawn without replacement (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of table is used when conducting a chi-squared test of association?

    <p>Contingency table (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    For a chi-squared goodness of fit test, what should you do first to analyze the data?

    <p>Create a frequency table (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why is it important that the data used in a chi-squared test comes from random sampling?

    <p>To eliminate bias and ensure representativeness (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary purpose of conducting a chi-squared test?

    <p>To determine if observed frequencies differ from expected frequencies (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which statement about the independence of observations in a chi-squared test is correct?

    <p>Each observation must be independent from others (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is a requirement for a chi-squared test regarding categories?

    <p>Categories should not overlap (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main purpose of using scientific methods in psychology?

    <p>To systematically understand, test, and analyze behavior and experience. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of research design focuses on manipulating variables to establish cause and effect?

    <p>Experimental design (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What distinguishes quantitative research from qualitative research?

    <p>Quantitative research relies on numerical data, while qualitative research does not. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following best describes a confounding variable?

    <p>A variable that overlaps with the independent variable and affects the dependent variable. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does it mean to operationalize a variable in psychological research?

    <p>To make a variable measurable or quantifiable. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a key characteristic of descriptive methods in research?

    <p>They describe characteristics of behavior or experience. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why is validity important in psychological research?

    <p>It ensures accurate measurement and interpretation of findings. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role do control groups play in research studies?

    <p>They allow researchers to compare against a manipulated group. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which sampling method gives every individual from the target population an equal chance of selection?

    <p>Random sampling (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a characteristic of longitudinal designs in psychological research?

    <p>They repeatedly measure individuals over an extended period. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary focus of qualitative research?

    <p>To explore deep psychological processes and individual experiences. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which statistical technique might be used to control for extraneous variables in research?

    <p>Regression analysis (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the significance of drawing conclusions about the relationship between the independent variable and dependent variable?

    <p>It allows researchers to assess causality and impact. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a key focus of qualitative research methods?

    <p>Understanding the meaning of experiences (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which method begins without preconceived categories during data collection?

    <p>Conventional content analysis (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does thematic analysis primarily focus on?

    <p>Identifying themes across participants (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of data includes distinct, separate values without any intermediate values?

    <p>Discrete data (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does Cohen’s kappa measure?

    <p>Consistency and agreement among raters (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is a characteristic of qualitative analysis?

    <p>It seeks to capture nuanced phenomena (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In the context of data types, which of the following is an example of ordinal data?

    <p>Student grades (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a characteristic of interval data?

    <p>It has meaningful and equal intervals between values. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary aim of content analysis?

    <p>To interpret content of text data subjectively (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which principle can qualitative methods uncover that quantitative methods might miss?

    <p>Nuance and complexity (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why can interval data not be used for certain comparisons?

    <p>It cannot express how much more one value is than another. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is an example of ratio data?

    <p>Weight of an object (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT a method of qualitative analysis?

    <p>Weighted kappa (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of qualitative response methodology would be best for categorizing free text data from surveys?

    <p>Thematic analysis (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does a true zero indicate in ratio data?

    <p>The absence of the quantity being measured. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which data type is characterized by being collected at specific time intervals?

    <p>Time series data (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the focus of grounded analysis?

    <p>Constructing categories based on data (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What can be used to generate new hypotheses in qualitative research?

    <p>Summary of individual responses (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What statistical method is typically used to summarise characteristics of a dataset?

    <p>Descriptive statistics (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of data is categorized but does not have a specific order?

    <p>Nominal data (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In measures of central tendency, which measure is the least affected by outliers?

    <p>Median (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the interquartile range (IQR)?

    <p>The range of the middle 50% of the data. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does variance measure in a dataset?

    <p>The spread of data points from the mean. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the standard deviation in relation to variance?

    <p>It is the square root of variance. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which statement best describes measures of dispersion?

    <p>They describe the spread or variability of data points. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the difference between descriptive and inferential statistics?

    <p>Descriptive statistics summarize data; inferential statistics predict and generalize. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is an example of cross sectional data?

    <p>Consumer preference surveys conducted in a single month (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of these characteristics is not associated with ratio data?

    <p>Can only represent discrete values. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary purpose of calculating variance in a dataset?

    <p>To measure the degree of consistency within the data (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which function can be used in Excel to directly calculate variance?

    <p>VARIANCE (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why is it essential to understand standard deviation along with variance?

    <p>Standard deviation provides a direct measure of data consistency. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In statistical analysis, what does a low variability imply?

    <p>The observed effect is likely representative of the population. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the central limit theorem signify?

    <p>Larger sample sizes yield a more accurate sampling distribution of the mean. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the shape of a normal distribution characterized by?

    <p>A bell-shaped curve (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following accurately defines kurtosis?

    <p>The peakness or flattening of the distribution compared to a normal distribution (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does a bimodal distribution indicate?

    <p>Two dominant groups or clusters within the data (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary concern when interpreting results from a high within-group variance?

    <p>It may obscure meaningful differences due to data noise. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    When would the use of inferential statistics be most appropriate?

    <p>When making predictions about a larger population (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why might data points not follow a normal distribution?

    <p>Outliers can significantly bias the normal shape. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT a measure of dispersion?

    <p>Mean (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary aim of conducting hypothesis testing in research?

    <p>To ascertain if results are statistically significant (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What purpose do confidence intervals serve in statistical analysis?

    <p>Provide a range of values that likely include the population parameter (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Study Notes

    Research Methods in Psychology

    • Psychology's scientific approach involves systematic observation and evidence to understand behavior and experience.
    • Research methods are crucial for advancing knowledge, theory, and practical applications in areas like education, business, and healthcare.
    • Scientific methods involve a process: hypothesis, theory, experiment, analysis, and conclusion/interpretations.
    • Research encompasses the entire study process, purpose, objectives, and outcomes.
    • Empirical research is original research based on observable and measurable behavior.
    • Research design outlines the study's conduct, including the study type, data collection, and analysis.
    • Research methods include specific procedures for collecting and analyzing data.
    • A hypothesis is a testable prediction about phenomena.
    • A theory is a broader explanation of behavior or experience supported by multiple studies.

    Types of Research Designs

    Quantitative Designs

    • Experimental Design: Manipulating one variable (Independent Variable - IV) to study its effect on another (Dependent Variable - DV) and to establish cause-effect relationships. It involves controlling variables.
      • Repeated measures, matched pairs, independent measures are experimental designs.
    • Longitudinal Design: Measures participants repeatedly over time to track changes in variables, often used to investigate health outcomes.
    • Correlational Design: Examines the relationship between variables without manipulating them. No causality is determined.
    • Descriptive Methods: Describe characteristics of experiences or behaviors. Surveys, questionnaires, and interviews are common.

    Qualitative Designs

    • Case Studies: Detailed analyses of specific cases or groups, often used to study complex issues in detail. This method examines a specific case, exploring multiple interacting variables, and often used to generate hypotheses/explore a specific case and its uniqueness.
    • Interviews: In-depth conversations with participants to gather detailed information, ranging from very structured to unstructured (flexible and adaptable). Focus groups gather information from a group, often using open-ended questions.
    • Observational Research: Watching participants and recording behavior in a natural or controlled setting, often used to develop hypotheses or generate broader trends.
    • Thematic Analysis: Identifying patterns or themes in the collected data from various sources.

    Key Concepts in Research Methodology

    • Variables:
    • Independent Variable (IV): The variable manipulated or changed.
    • Dependent Variable (DV): The variable measured.
    • Extraneous Variable: Other variables that might affect the DV but not the focus of the study.
    • Confounding Variable: Variable that influences both IV and DV, potentially distorting results.
    • Demand Characteristics: Participants changing their behavior due to awareness of being observed or participating in a study.
    • Controlling for extraneous and confounding variables: Control groups (comparing to a non-manipulated group), randomization, matching, statistical control, holding variables constant (e.g., testing conditions), and pre-screening participants.
    • Operationalization: Defining variables in measurable terms.
    • Sampling: Selecting participants from a target population to make inferences about the whole population.
      • Representative: Sample accurately reflects the population.
      • Generalizable: Findings can apply to the larger population.
      • Types of Sampling: Volunteer, opportunity, random, systematic.
    • Reliability and Validity:
      • Reliability: Consistency of a measure.
        • Test-retest, inter-rater, and internal consistency are types of reliability.
      • Validity: Accuracy of a measure (does it measure what it's supposed to?).
        • Face validity, construct validity, criterion validity, and external validity are various types of validity.
    • Threats: Demand characteristics, biases, social desirability bias, experimenter effects.

    Ethical Considerations

    • Ethical principles: Informed consent, confidentiality, minimizing harm, right to withdraw, debriefing, integrity, honesty.
    • Ethical approval: Essential to protect participants and their rights.
    • Ethics committees: Review potential risks versus benefits to approve research.
    • Guidelines for ethical research: Developed by professional organizations (e.g., APA, BPS) and institutional review boards (IRBs).

    Qualitative Data Analysis Techniques

    • Thematic Analysis: Identifying patterns and themes in gathered data, often used with interview or focus group data.
    • Content Analysis: A method of analysing various data sources (text, documents, media) systematically, looking for themes and frequency of specific words/concepts.
    • Narrative Analysis: Examines stories from participants to understand their meanings and experiences.
    • Discourse Analysis: Focuses on how language and communication shape understanding.
    • Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis: Exploring subjective, lived experiences in qualitative research.

    Additional Details

    • Inter-rater Reliability: Measures the degree of agreement between different raters when independently evaluating the same data.
    • Kappa statistics are used to assess the degree of agreement among raters, taking into account the possibility of agreement by chance.
    • Statistical techniques like chi-squared tests, t-tests, and ANOVA are crucial for determining significant relationships or differences based on numerical data.
    • Central limit theorem describes how the distribution of sample means becomes closer to a normal distribution as the sample size increases.
    • Hypothesis testing involves formulating a null hypothesis (no effect) and an alternative hypothesis (effect/difference) to decide if there is evidence to support the alternative hypothesis by examining the plausibility of the null hypothesis.
    • Significance level (alpha) sets a threshold for rejecting the null hypothesis (typical value is 0.05).
    • p-value is the probability of obtaining the observed result if the null hypothesis were true.

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    Description

    Explore the various research methods utilized in psychology to systematically observe and analyze behavior and experiences. This quiz covers the scientific approach, empirical research, research design, and the distinction between hypotheses and theories. Test your understanding of quantitative designs and their significance in psychological research.

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