Research Methods and Inquiry

Unit 1: Research Methods and Inquiry Method

Case Studies

• In-depth research of a situation, individual, or group
• Pros: provides detailed information
• Cons: limited to a small sample size
• Famous example: Margaret Mead's "Coming of Age in Samoa"

Surveys

• Questions asked to gather information on individuals' preferences, opinions, and feelings
• Pros: can represent a larger population with a small sample size
• Cons: limited options and may not capture all information

Experiments

• Tasks taken to examine cause and effect relationships using different variables
• Types:
  • Lab experiments: controlled environment, pros: can be replicated, cons: may not reflect real-life behaviors
  • Field experiments: everyday environments, pros: more authentic, cons: less control, harder to replicate
  • Natural experiments: everyday environments with no manipulation, pros: most authentic, cons: time-consuming, less control, hard to replicate

Interviews

• Sit-down conversations to gather in-depth information
• Pros: provides detailed, qualitative data
• Cons: time-consuming, limited to a small sample size

Observations

• Types:
  • Unstructured: studying people without a predetermined idea of what to look for
  • Structured: planning beforehand for what to observe and note
  • Participant: observing and participating in a group's activities
• Pros: more authentic
• Cons: time-consuming

Inquiry Method (Scientific Method)

• Steps:
  1. Question or problem
  2. Clarify work
  3. Hypothesis
  4. Gather data
  5. Analyze data
  6. Draw conclusions

Unit 2: Anthropology

What makes humans unique from other species

• Bipedalism
• Large brain size
• Opposable thumbs

Theory of Evolution

• Developed by Charles Darwin
• Describes how organisms change over time through natural selection
• Published in "On the Origin of Species"

Physical Anthropology

• Branches:
  • Forensic anthropology
  • Paleoanthropology
  • Primatology
  • Biological anthropology
• Focuses on understanding the physical or biological nature of human beings

Cultural Anthropology

• Branches:
  • Archaeology
  • Linguistic anthropology
  • Ethnography
  • Ethnology
• Focuses on studying human beings in different cultural settings

Key Concepts in Anthropology

• Assimilation: adopting cultural traits of another culture
• Acculturation: adopting elements of another culture while maintaining one's own
• Diffusion: spread of cultural elements from one culture to another
• Ethnocentrism: viewing one's own culture as superior
• Cultural Relativism: understanding cultural practices within their own context
• Rite of Passage: ceremonies marking significant life events
• Norms: shared expectations and rules
• Values: ideals and principles considered important
• Symbols: objects with meaning and significance

Key Anthropologists

• Beatrice Medicine: focused on Indigenous languages and culture, mental health, and gender roles
• Charles Darwin: developed the Theory of Evolution
• Margaret Mead: used case studies to study adolescence and gender roles
• Louis Leakey: focused on prehistoric studies in Africa
• Franz Boas: contributed to cultural anthropology, linguistic anthropology, and physical anthropology
• Jane Goodall: researched chimpanzees in Tanzania
• Dian Fossey: researched mountain gorillas in Rwanda
• Mysore Narasimhachar Srinivas: focused on Indian society and the caste system

Unit 3: Psychology

Regions of the Human Brain

• Frontal Lobe: voluntary movement, expressive language, executive functions
• Parietal Lobe: processes senses, navigation, symbolic interpretation
• Temporal Lobe: analyzes sounds, memory storage, language processing
• Occipital Lobe: visual perception, color, form, motion
• Limbic System: processes emotions, regulates emotions and memory
• Amygdala: processes emotions, particularly fear and anxiety

Teenage Brain

• Changes in brain development during puberty
• Prefrontal cortex develops later than limbic system
• Implications for emotional regulation and decision-making

Classical Conditioning

• Type of learning where a neutral stimulus is paired with an unconditioned stimulus
• Terms:
  • Unconditioned Stimulus: naturally triggers a response
  • Unconditioned Response: natural response to an unconditioned stimulus
  • Conditioned Stimulus: previously neutral stimulus that triggers a conditioned response
  • Conditioned Response: learned response to a conditioned stimulus

Operant Conditioning

• Type of learning that uses rewards and punishments
• Terms:
  • Reinforcers: increase the probability of a behavior
  • Punishers: decrease the probability of a behavior

Nature vs. Nurture

• Nature: inherent characteristics and traits determined by genetics
• Nurture: environmental influences and experiences that shape development and behavior

Defense Mechanisms

• Denial: claiming or believing that what is true is actually false
• Displacement: diverting emotional feelings from their original source
• Intellectualization: avoiding unacceptable emotions by focusing on intellectual aspects
• Projection: attributing one's own thoughts or feelings onto another
• Rationalization: creating false excuses to justify unacceptable behavior
• Regression: reverting to immature patterns of behavior
• Repression: keeping distressed thoughts and feelings buried in the unconscious
• Sublimation: redirecting "wrong" urges into socially acceptable actions
• Reaction Formation: behaving in a way that is opposite of one's true feelings

Cognitive Learning

• Branch of psychology that focuses on information processing
• Includes:
  • Thinking and reasoning
  • Learning
  • Memory
  • Perception
  • Attention
  • Language
  • Problem-solving
• Cognitive process:
  1. Perception
  2. Attention
  3. Memory
  4. Thinking

Memory

• Internal record or representation of a prior event or experience
• Types:
  • Short-term memory: temporarily stores information
  • Working memory: uses information
  • Long-term memory: stores information for long periods
• Process model:
  1. Encoding: translating information into neural codes
  2. Storage: keeping neural codes over time
  3. Retrieval: recovering information from storage

Mental Health vs. Mental Illness

• Mental health: state of mental and emotional well-being
• Mental illness: "abnormal" behavior, thought, and emotion
• Neurosis: mild functional disorders
• Psychosis: severe mental illness characterized by loss of contact with reality

Key Theorists

• Sigmund Freud: developed psychoanalysis
• Jean Piaget: focused on cognitive development
• Abraham Maslow: developed the hierarchy of needs
• Ivan Pavlov: discovered classical conditioning
• B.F. Skinner: developed operant conditioning### Cognitive Development
• Jean Piaget's theory focuses on the cognitive development of children from birth to adolescence.
• He identified four key stages of cognitive development:
  • Sensorimotor stage (0-2 years): children use senses and motor skills to explore and interact with the environment.
  • Preoperational stage (2-7 years): development of symbolic thought and language, with limited understanding of logical operations.
  • Concrete operational stage (7-11 years): ability to solve logical problems using concrete objects.
  • Formal operational stage (adolescence): development of abstract thinking and ability to reason about hypotheticals.

Socialization

• Socialization is the process of learning to adjust to a group or society and behave in a manner approved by the group.
• Types of socialization:
  • Primary socialization: learning basic skills needed to survive in society.
  • Secondary socialization: learning how to behave appropriately in new situations.
  • Anticipatory socialization: planning how to behave in new situations using prior knowledge.
  • Resocialization: transforming old, unacceptable behavior into socially acceptable behavior.

Social Institutions

• Social institutions are organized groups that support social order and govern the behavior of individuals.
• They can be personal (intimate relationships) or impersonal (large groups).
• Examples of social institutions include family, education, religion, and media.

Conflict Theory and Functionalist Theories

• Conflict theory: social phenomena are shaped by power struggles, inequalities, and conflicts among different groups or classes within society.
• Functionalism: society is a complex system of interrelated parts, each serving a function to maintain stability and equilibrium.
• Functionalism views social institutions as interdependent and contributing to maintaining societal order.

Agents of Socialization

• Family: primary agent of socialization, influencing children intentionally and unintentionally.
• Peers: secondary agent of socialization, influencing children as early as 2-3 years old.
• Education: secondary agent of socialization, teaching knowledge, skills, and cultural expectations.
• Religion: secondary agent of socialization, teaching morals, beliefs, and accepted practices.
• Media: powerful agent of socialization, shaping attitudes and behavior through various forms of media.

Group Behavior

• Conformity: altering behavior or beliefs to meet the expectations of a group or authority figure.
• Groupthink: uncritically accepting the group's consensus, sometimes viewed as an extreme form of conformity.
• Deviance: violating social norms, exploring the Isms (racism, sexism, heterosexism, etc.).

Discrimination

• Overt discrimination: clear, intentional, and explicit discriminatory actions or behaviors against individuals or groups.
• Systemic discrimination: discrimination entrenched in institutions and social structures, leading to unequal outcomes.
• Types of discrimination:
  • Sexism: discrimination against a person/group because of their sex.
  • Ageism: discrimination against a person/group because of their age.
  • Homophobia: discrimination against a person/group because of their sexual orientation.
  • Racism: discrimination against a person/group because of their race.
  • Religious discrimination: discrimination against a person or group because of their religious beliefs.

Theories of Discrimination

• Learned theory: family, peers, media, and language pass along prejudicial views.
• Competition theory: finite resources lead to prejudice and discrimination.
• Ignorance theory: lack of experience leads to incorrect assumptions about a specific group.
• Frustration-aggression theory: individual shortcomings lead to resentment towards a group perceived to have greater wealth and prosperity.

Sexism, Heterosexism, and Homophobia

• Sexism: discrimination based on gender or sex.
• Heterosexism: belief that heterosexuality is normal, natural, or superior to other sexual orientations.
• Homophobia and transphobia: prejudice and bias against people who identify as LGBTQ+.

Privilege, Bias, Prejudice, and Equity

• Privilege: unearned advantage for members of some groups.
• Prejudice: attitude directed at members of a group (can be positive or negative).
• Bias: unfavorable attitude towards individuals or groups based on characteristics.
• Equity: principle of fairness and justice, allocating resources and opportunities to address historical injustices and inequalities.

Key Theorists

• Emile Durkheim: established the academic discipline of sociology.
• Karl Marx: developer of conflict theory.
• W.E.B. DuBois: viewed race as a socially constructed concept.
• Solomon Asch: conducted conformity experiments.
• Philip Zimbardo: demonstrated the power of social situations to influence people's behavior.
• George Mead: developed the theory of the generalized "other".
• Kimberle Crenshaw: critical race theory and intersectionality.
• Audre Lorde: articulated an approach to celebrate the experiences of Black women.
• Dorothy Smith: created feminist theory and institutional ethnography.