Research Credibility and Empiricism Overview
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Questions and Answers

What is meant by construct validity in the context of research?

  • The accuracy of the statistical methods used in the study.
  • The extent of the researcher’s bias impacting the results.
  • The degree to which the sample represents the population.
  • Whether the experiment measures what it claims to measure. (correct)

    • Which statement correctly describes causal claims in research?

  • They rely solely on statistical correlations without manipulation.
  • They require understanding of the variables that are being manipulated. (correct)
  • They are established purely based on observational studies.
  • They involve frequency claims that do not necessitate variable manipulation.

    • What does selective breeding in Tryon’s intelligence research imply about hereditary impacts?

  • It confirms that genetic factors can influence performance in mazes. (correct)
  • It proves that intelligence is independent of genetic factors.
  • It's unrelated to learning abilities in maze performance.
  • It's a method that guarantees equal performance among subjects.

    • In discussing association claims, which factor is crucial for operationalization?

    <p>Defining what is meant by the claims being made, such as 'heavy cellphone use.' (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What question addresses a common issue in evaluating intelligence in maze performance?

    <p>Is maze learning ability equivalent to overall intelligence? (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role do comparison groups play in research?

    <p>They are essential for falsification. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following best describes confounding factors?

    <p>They provide alternate explanations for effects. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a significant issue with anecdotal evidence?

    <p>It often ignores confounding factors. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is confirmation bias?

    <p>The favoring of belief-confirming information while avoiding disconfirming information. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary purpose of the theory-data cycle?

    <p>To refine theoretical assumptions based on observations. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which statement accurately reflects a common pitfall of using intuition in decision-making?

    <p>It can lead to confirmation bias. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which cognitive bias involves only considering readily available information?

    <p>Availability heuristic (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is described as a good theory?

    <p>A proposal that can be falsified. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a key characteristic of pseudoscience?

    <p>Utilizes scientific terms to appear legitimate (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which goal of science focuses on explaining why events and behaviors occur?

    <p>Understanding or explaining behavior (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which criterion does NOT support establishing cause and effect according to scientific standards?

    <p>Presence of anecdotal evidence (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which statement best describes applied research?

    <p>It aims to solve practical problems in real-world situations. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is important for scientists to do with their own ideas?

    <p>Remain critical and open to contradictory evidence (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of matrix should be created for 4 order counterbalancing?

    <p>4x4 matrix (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main advantage of partial counterbalancing compared to complete counterbalancing?

    <p>It simplifies recruitment of participants. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    When is randomly selected orders design most appropriate to use?

    <p>When the number of participants is significantly high. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is considered a more dependable strategy for exposing participants to all conditions more than once?

    <p>Block randomization (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a potential issue that between-groups designs may encounter?

    <p>Equivalent groups concerns (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does a factorial design with a labeling of 2x2 indicate?

    <p>Two factors with two levels each (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which design suffers from concerns primarily related to order effects?

    <p>Within groups designs (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following accurately describes interactions in a factorial design?

    <p>The effect of one variable can depend on the levels of another variable. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a characteristic of a good scientific theory?

    <p>It is supported by data and is falsifiable. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which statement best describes a causal claim?

    <p>It states that one variable is responsible for changes in another variable. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In research, what are extraneous variables?

    <p>Variables that are not the focus of the study but may influence results. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the principle of parsimony suggest?

    <p>The simplest explanation is the most credible, if it fits the evidence. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role does random assignment play in research?

    <p>It minimizes the potential for confounding variables. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the difference between independent and dependent variables?

    <p>Independent variables are manipulated, and dependent variables are measured. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following best describes 'temporal precedence' in establishing causality?

    <p>The causal variable must come before the outcome variable. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the focus of frequency claims in research?

    <p>Providing a rate or level of occurrence of a specific variable. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is an effective way to address testing threats in experiments?

    <p>Use a control group (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What must always be considered to make a causal claim?

    <p>Control of internal validity threats (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is an instrumentation threat in the context of experiments?

    <p>Altered measurements due to faulty instruments (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is a solution to reverse confounds?

    <p>Maintain consistent exposure across conditions (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What could cause a null result in an experimental study?

    <p>Confounding variables obscuring the effect (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why is it important to keep participants and researchers blind to the conditions of an experiment?

    <p>To minimize demand characteristics (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which option is NOT a recommended method to ensure internal validity?

    <p>Conduct post-hoc analyses of results (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a potential outcome of using alternate forms in a study?

    <p>Minimized influence of order effects (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Flashcards

    Comparison Groups

    Essential for determining if an effect is real and not due to chance or other factors.

    Confounds

    Alternative explanations for an observed effect, obscuring the true cause.

    Anecdotal Evidence

    Personal stories or accounts, problematic as lack comparison groups and confounds.

    Confirmation Bias

    The tendency to seek out information supporting existing beliefs and ignore contradictory evidence.

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    Availability Heuristic

    Judging likelihood based on how easily examples come to mind.

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    Tenacity

    Holding on to beliefs irrespective of evidence to the contrary, often a long-standing belief.

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    Theory-Data Cycle

    The process of forming a theory, testing it with specific predictions, and gathering data to support or refute it.

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    Hypothesis

    A specific prediction or guess that stems from a theory.

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    Construct Validity

    Ensures the operationalization (how variables are measured) accurately reflects the intended construct (the concept being measured).

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    Frequency Claim

    A claim about the frequency or rate of a variable or variables that happen in situations or at particular points in time.

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    Association Claim

    A claim suggesting a link between two or more variables.

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    Causal Claim

    A claim stating that one variable causes or influences another variable.

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    Tryon's Rat Experiment

    Bred rats with high/low maze-running abilities to investigate the role of genetics in intelligence.

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    Supported by data

    Scientific theories are strengthened by evidence from multiple sources that converge on the same conclusion.

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    Falsifiable

    A scientific theory must be able to be proven wrong. If it can't be proven wrong, it's not truly scientific.

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    Parsimonious

    The simplest explanation that fits the evidence is usually the best.

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    Variable

    A factor that can vary across at least two levels.

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    Independent Variable (IV)

    The variable that is manipulated in an experiment to see how it affects another variable.

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    Dependent Variable (DV)

    The variable that is measured to see how the independent variable affects it.

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    Counterbalancing (Partial)

    A technique used in experimental design to reduce order effects by presenting different orders of conditions to different participants.

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    Counterbalancing Matrix

    A table used to organize different orders of testing conditions across multiple participants to reduce order effects in experimental designs.

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    Block Randomization

    A dependable method of exposing participants to all conditions more than once, distributing conditions randomly within blocks.

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    Order Effects

    Changes in performance caused by the order in which conditions are presented to participants during research, leading to experimental biases.

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    Factorial Design

    Experimental designs with more than one independent variable.

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    Between-groups factorial design

    Each participant experiences only one level of each independent variable.

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    Within-groups factorial design

    Each participant is exposed to all levels of each independent variable.

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    Mixed factorial design

    Combines between-groups and within-groups factors in a single study.

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    Testing Threats

    Factors that can alter participant responses on a posttest due to prior exposure to a pretest.

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    Instrumentation Threats

    Changes in the measurement instrument itself, leading to inaccurate results.

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    Control Group

    A group that does not receive the experimental treatment, used as a baseline for comparison.

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    Null Results

    When statistical analysis does not reveal a significant difference between groups.

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    Confounding Variable

    An extraneous factor that influences both the independent and dependent variables, obscuring the true relationship.

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    Reverse Confound

    A situation where the outcome is causally related to the characteristic being studied.

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    Demand Characteristics

    Cues in an experiment that hint at the desired outcome, influencing participant behavior.

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    Blind Study

    A research design where participants and/or researchers are unaware of the treatment conditions.

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    Falsifiable Question

    A question that can be tested and potentially proven false through scientific methods.

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    Pseudoscience

    Claims presented as scientific but lacking rigorous scientific methods and evidence.

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    Describe Behavior

    Understand the characteristics and patterns of a behavior, including its appearance, frequency, and occurrence in different individuals.

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    Predict Behavior

    Forecasting when a behavior will or will not occur based on previous patterns and relationships.

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    Basic Research

    Focuses on fundamental understanding of a behavior and its causes, often testing theoretical concepts.

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    Study Notes

    Credibility Crisis in Research

    • Publish-or-perish phenomenon pressures researchers to publish in high-impact journals, potentially sacrificing credibility for publication.
    • Biased research designs prioritize expected outcomes over disproving hypotheses.
    • Peer review systems face challenges in adequate review time and training, impacting rigor.
    • P-hacking compromises data integrity by manipulating data-collection to achieve desired outcomes.

    Solutions to Research Issues

    • Preregistration badges on research pieces
    • Open material for accessible research resources (e.g., surveys, data)
    • Open data accessibility for comparable past research.

    Foundations of Empiricism

    • Plato's rationalism emphasizes reasoning based on internal knowledge.
    • Aristotle's empiricism prioritizes knowledge derived from sensory experience.
    • Modern empiricism includes systematic empiricism and skepticism.

    Non-empirical Ways of Thinking

    • Trusting experts: experts are susceptible to mistakes, biases, and misinformation.
    • Anecdotal evidence: personal experiences are limited, lack comparison groups, and contain potential confounds.

    Importance of Skepticism

    • Being unsure about things is valuable, even when data is available.

    Theory-Data Cycle

    • Theory: general statements about variables.
    • Hypothesis/Prediction: specific guesses derived from theory.
    • Data Collection: observations and measures.

    Assessing Research Claims

    • Variables definitions (IVs, DVs, Constants)
    • IVs (independent variables) get manipulated; DVs (dependent variables) get measured.
    • Random assignment of participants to conditions
    • Quasi-experiments establishes cause-and-effect relationship
    • Confounds (confounding variables) that affect both independent and dependent variables must be controlled.

    Types and Claims

    • Frequency claims describing variables alone
    • Association claims between two or more variables
    • Causal claims one variable causing changes in other variable

    Assessing Research Claims

    • Frequency: construct, external validity
    • Association: construct, external, statistical validity
    • Causal: construct, external, statistical, internal validity

    Research on Rats

    • Tryon's inbred rats experiment.
    • Construct validity of experiments
    • Frequency claims
    • Association claims
    • Causal claims

    Validity Types

    • Construct validity
    • Content validity
    • Criterion validity
    • Face validity
    • Empirical assessment

    Survey Research

    • Describing characteristics of populations, comparing groups/populations, time trends, relationships between variables
    • Understanding population characteristics
    • Testing psychological theories and models

    Developing a Good Survey

    • Converting research goals to specific survey topics
    • Defining survey items

    Item Formatting Choices

    • Open-ended items
    • Close-ended items
    • Multiple choice items (single/multiple response)
    • Likert/Likert-type scales
    • Ranking scales

    Visual Analog Scales

    • Rating on a continuous scale without numerical values.

    Leading Items & Wording Issues

    • Leading/loaded items nudge respondents toward certain answers.
    • Double-barreled items ask about multiple topics or concerns using one question.
    • Careful consideration of language, terms, and sentence structure is important to avoid confusion, bias and misunderstanding.

    Order of Survey Questions

    • Order effects.
    • Leading items (they influence the subsequent answers)
    • Loaded items (force certain responses, usually untrue ones)
    • Double-barreled items (ask about more than one topic).
    • Items using double negatives (e.g., "not unwilling").
    • Carefully worded items with unambiguous punctuation.
    • Items in logical order.

    Issues in Survey Responses

    • Yea-saying (always agreeing)
    • Nay-saying (always disagreeing)
    • Fence-sitting (always neutral).

    Socially Desirable Responding

    • Participants respond in ways they believe are socially appropriate to look good.

    Solutions for Socially Desirable Responding

    • Anonymity is crucial for honesty in surveys (because people are less likely to provide dishonest answers)
    • Bogus pipeline technique creates perceived consequences to encourage honesty about answers.

    Types of Observational Research

    • Natural Observation.
    • Participant Observation.
    • Structured Observation.

    Observational Research Considerations

    • Focusing on certain subjects.
    • Choosing an area/location to observe.
    • Determining how behaviors are recorded (e.g., systematic, continuous).

    Correlation and Causation

    • Correlation does not equal causation.
    • Temporal precedence (cause must come before effect)
    • Internal validity (ruling out other explanations)
    • Third-variable problem (confounding variable)
    • Directionality problem

    Partial and Multiple Correlations

    • These methods help determine relationships between variables and factors.
    • Multiple regression analysis
    • Controlling extraneous/confounding variables

    Internal Validity

    • Control group
    • Random assignment
    • Proper control over conditions
    • Consistency in procedures or treatment

    Experimental Designs

    • Single-factor, between-groups
    • Single-factor, within-groups
    • Factorial designs (including two, three, and mixed designs)

    Threats to Internal Validity

    • Design confounds
    • Selection effects
    • Order effects
    • Experimenter expectancy effects

    Instrumentation Threats

    • Measuring instruments may change over time, decreasing reliability/validity.
    • Training coders/observers to ensure consistent use of instruments.
    • Finding alternate instrument forms in pre- and post-test assessments to maintain consistency.
    • Ensure sufficient detail in measurement descriptions.

    Null Results

    • Results indicate no direct relationship between treatments and outcomes.
    • Low variability between conditions
    • High variability within conditions
    • Reverse confounds: probability that the observed results are associated with a lurking variable instead of an actual treatment effect.

    Validity in Research

    • Convergent validity
    • Discriminant validity (how well a measure distinguishes between different constructs)

    Ethical Concerns in Research

    • Informed consent
    • Right to withdraw
    • Deception
    • Debriefing

    Types of Claims (in Research)

    • Frequency claims
    • Association claims
    • Causal claims

    Factors for choosing design types (for research)

    • Degree of complexity in researcher's question
    • Amount of control desired by researcher
    • Practicality and feasibility
    • External validity

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    Description

    Explore the critical issues surrounding the credibility crisis in research, including the publish-or-perish phenomenon, biased research designs, and the challenges of peer review. Understand the foundations of empiricism from Plato to modern perspectives, and examine the solutions proposed to enhance research integrity and accessibility.

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