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Questions and Answers

What percentage of the blood pumped by the heart is supplied to the kidneys at all times?

30%

20%

10%

25% (correct)

What is the function of peritubular capillaries surrounding the proximal and distal convoluted tubule?

Storage of urine

Secretion of substances into the filtrate

Filtration of substances from the blood

Reabsorption of essential nutrients (correct)

What is the primary function of the distal convoluted tubule?

Final urinary composition (correct)

Filtration of substances from the blood

Reabsorption of nutrients

Secretion of substances into the filtrate

What is the primary function of vasa recta in the juxtamedullary nephrons?

Exchange of water and salts between the blood and medullary interstitium Signup and view all the answers

What is the approximate total renal blood flow in an average body of 1.73m2 of surface area?

1200 mL/min Signup and view all the answers

What is the range of total renal plasma flow in an average body?

600-700 mL/min Signup and view all the answers

What is the composition of urine?

Substances filtered directly from the blood and secreted from the blood into the filtrate minus the reabsorbed substances Signup and view all the answers

What is the function of certain tubule cells in the kidney?

Transportation of additional solutes from the blood into the filtrate Signup and view all the answers

What is the approximate number of nephrons in each kidney?

1 to 1.5 million Signup and view all the answers

Where are the kidneys located in the body?

Between the 12th thoracic and 3rd lumbar vertebrae Signup and view all the answers

What is the main function of the juxtamedullary nephrons?

Concentration of urine Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of the glomerular capillaries in the kidney?

Filtration of blood to produce filtrate Signup and view all the answers

What is the functional unit of the kidney?

Nephron Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a function of the kidney?

Regulation of blood sugar levels Signup and view all the answers

What is the term for the fluid that is filtered out of the blood in the glomerular capillaries?

Filtrate Signup and view all the answers

What is the main function of the renal blood flow?

Delivery of oxygen and nutrients to the kidney Signup and view all the answers

What is the name of the process by which the kidneys filter waste products from the blood?

Glomerular filtration Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements is TRUE about the filtration process?

It is a process that separates substances based on their size and molecular charge Signup and view all the answers

What is the term for the process of removing waste products from the blood?

Excretion Signup and view all the answers

What is the purpose of tubular reabsorption in the nephron?

To reabsorb useful substances back into the blood Signup and view all the answers

What are the two major parts of the nephron?

Glomerulus and tubules Signup and view all the answers

What is the term for the process by which the kidney secretes waste products into the filtrate?

Tubular secretion Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a function of erythropoietin produced by the kidney?

Stimulation of red blood cell production Signup and view all the answers

What is the mnemonic device that helps to remember the functions of the kidney?

A WET BED Signup and view all the answers

What is the approximate volume of water-containing low-molecular-weight substances filtered by the glomerulus every minute?

120 mL Signup and view all the answers

What is the specific gravity of the filtrate leaving the glomerulus?

1.010 Signup and view all the answers

What happens to the filtrate concentration when the plasma concentration of a substance exceeds its maximal reabsorptive capacity?

It exceeds the maximal reabsorptive capacity Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of Antidiuretic Hormone (Arginine Vasopressin) in the distal convoluted tubule and collecting duct?

It increases the permeability of the tubule to water Signup and view all the answers

What determines the renal threshold of a substance?

The concentration of the substance in the plasma Signup and view all the answers

Where does renal concentration begin in the nephron?

Descending loop of Henle Signup and view all the answers

What is the term for the plasma concentration at which active transport stops?

Renal threshold Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary factor that determines the secretion of substances in the tubules?

The state of body hydration Signup and view all the answers

What is the main function of the countercurrent mechanism in the nephron?

To concentrate the filtrate by reabsorbing water Signup and view all the answers

Where does the final concentration of the filtrate take place?

Collecting ducts Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of tubular secretion?

To remove waste products from the blood Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of ADH (Vasopressin) in the nephron?

To facilitate the reabsorption of water in the collecting ducts Signup and view all the answers

What is the main site for the removal of non-filtered substances?

Proximal convoluted tubule Signup and view all the answers

What is a major constituent of urine?

Sodium Signup and view all the answers

What is the result of sodium and chloride leaving the filtrate in the ascending loop of Henle?

Concentration of the medullary interstitium Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of the osmotic gradient in the medulla?

To facilitate the reabsorption of water in the collecting ducts Signup and view all the answers

What is the main component of blood?

Plasma Signup and view all the answers

What is the pH of plasma?

7.4 Signup and view all the answers

What is the function of erythrocytes?

Carrying oxygen Signup and view all the answers

What is the process of spreading a drop of blood on a microscope slide called?

Blood smear Signup and view all the answers

What is the term for the formed elements in plasma?

Erythrocytes, leukocytes, and platelets Signup and view all the answers

What is the purpose of staining blood smears?

To observe blood cells under a microscope Signup and view all the answers

What does plasma consist of?

Proteins, nutrients, respiratory gases, and more Signup and view all the answers

What is the volume of blood in an average adult?

5 L Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of platelets?

Forming blood clots to repair injured vessels Signup and view all the answers

What is the site where lymphoid progenitor cells proliferate and differentiate?

Thymus or lymph nodes Signup and view all the answers

What is the term for the process of white blood cells migrating out of the venules into the surrounding tissue space?

Diapedesis Signup and view all the answers

What is the size range of platelets?

2-4 um in diameter Signup and view all the answers

What is the source of all blood cell types?

Pluripotent hemopoietic stem cell Signup and view all the answers

What is the function of the pluripotent hemopoietic stem cell?

To give rise to all blood cell types Signup and view all the answers

What is the final stage of erythropoiesis?

Erythrocyte Signup and view all the answers

What is the stage of erythropoiesis just before the formation of erythrocytes?

Polychromatophilic normoblast Signup and view all the answers

What is the approximate diameter of a red blood cell?

7.5 um Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of the biconcave shape of red blood cells?

To increase the surface to volume ratio Signup and view all the answers

What is the composition of the red blood cell membrane?

40% lipid, 10% carbohydrate, 50% protein Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of leukocytes?

To play a key role in the defense against invading microorganisms Signup and view all the answers

What is the term for the attraction of neutrophils to bacteria?

Chemotaxis Signup and view all the answers

What is the function of granulocytes?

To have azurophilic and specific granules Signup and view all the answers

What is the result of cytokines being released from various sources in injured or infected tissues?

The loosening of intercellular junctions in the endothelial cells of local postcapillary venules Signup and view all the answers

What is the characteristic of the red blood cell that allows it to undergo large elastic deformations?

The flexibility of the cell membrane Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of the immune system?

To provide defense or immunity against infectious agents Signup and view all the answers

What are cytokines?

Cell signaling molecules Signup and view all the answers

What is the function of antibodies?

To recognize and bind to specific antigens Signup and view all the answers

What is the name of the process by which the immune system presents antigens to T-lymphocytes?

Antigen presentation Signup and view all the answers

What are T-lymphocytes?

A type of immune cell Signup and view all the answers

What is the function of B-lymphocytes?

To produce antibodies Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

Urinary System & Renal Function

Kidneys are the primary organs of the urinary system, responsible for filtering the blood, removing waste, and excreting waste in the urine.
The kidneys are located between the 12th thoracic and 3rd lumbar vertebrae, one on each side of the vertebral column, and are protected by the lower ribs.

Kidney Structure

The adult human kidney measures approximately 12.5 cm (length), 6 cm (width), and 2.5 cm (depth).
The kidney has 2 major parts: glomerulus and tubules (PCT, DCT, and loop of Henle).

Nephron

The nephron is the functional unit of the kidney, with approximately 1 to 1.5 million in number.
There are 2 types of nephrons: cortical nephrons (shorter loops of Henle) and juxtamedullary nephrons (longer loops of Henle).

Renal Functions

The kidneys control the clearing of waste products and maintaining water and electrolytes through:
- Renal blood flow
- Glomerular filtration
- Tubular reabsorption and secretion
The kidneys also regulate:
- Acid-base balance
- Electrolyte balance
- Toxin removal
- Blood pressure regulation
- Erythropoietin production
- Vitamin D metabolism

Urine Formation

A. Filtration:
- Blood pressure in the glomerular capillaries forces fluid and small molecules out of the blood.
- The filtered fluid is referred to as the filtrate.
- The filtration process is non-selective and separates based on size or molecular charge.
B. Tubular Reabsorption:
- Cells in the nephron contain transport proteins that move water and filtered molecules back into the blood.
- The process of reabsorption prevents the loss of important solutes from the body.
- Most filtered water and useful solutes are returned to the blood by the time the filtrate is modified into urine.
C. Tubular Secretion:
- The movement of non-filtered substances from the blood into the filtrate.
- Certain tubule cells transport additional solutes from the blood into the filtrate.

Renal Blood Flow

The renal artery supplies blood to the kidney.
The human kidneys receive approximately 25% of the blood pumped through the heart at all times.
Peritubular capillaries surround the proximal and distal convoluted tubules and reabsorb essential nutrients.
Vasa recta are located adjacent to the ascending and descending loops of Henle in the juxtamedullary nephrons.

Urine Composition

The main constituents of urine include:
- Water
- Urea
- Uric acid
- Creatinine
- Sodium
- Potassium
- Chloride
- Calcium
- Magnesium
- Phosphates
- Sulfates

Blood Components

Blood is a specialized connective tissue consisting of cells and fluid extracellular material called plasma
Approximately 5 L of blood in an average adult moves unidirectionally within the closed circulatory system

Blood Cells

Formed elements circulating in the plasma are:
- Erythrocytes (red blood cells)
- Leukocytes (white blood cells)
- Platelets

Plasma Composition

Aqueous solution with a pH of 7.4
Contains substances of low or high molecular weight that make up 7% of its volume
Dissolved components in plasma include:
- Proteins
- Nutrients
- Respiratory gases
- Nitrogenous waste products
- Hormones
- Electrolytes

Major Plasma Proteins

No specific information provided

Erythrocytes

Lack nuclei
Filled with oxygen-carrying hemoglobin
Appear as biconcave flexible discs
Approximately 7.5 um in diameter, 2.6 um thick at the rim, 0.75 um thick at the center
Biconcave shape provides a large surface to volume ratio and facilitates gas exchange
Can undergo large elastic deformations when passing through narrow blood vessels
Large flexibility of the cell is primarily attributed to the cell membrane

Leukocytes

Divided into 2 major groups:
- Granulocytes (has azurophilic and specific granules)
- Agranulocytes (only has azurophilic granules)
Key players in the constant defense against invading microorganisms and in the repair of injured tissues
Chemotaxis: attraction of neutrophils to bacteria involves chemical mediators
Diapedesis: leukocytes send extensions through the openings between endothelial cells, migrate out of the venules into the surrounding tissue space

Platelets

AKA thrombocytes
Very small, non-nucleated membrane-bound cell fragments
Ranging from 2-4 um in diameter
Promote blood clotting and help repair minor tears or leaks in the walls of small blood vessels

Hemopoiesis

All cells arise from a single type of pluripotent hemopoietic stem cell in the bone marrow
The pluripotent stem cells are rare, proliferate slowly, and give rise to 2 major lineages of progenitor cells:
- Lymphoid (lymphocytes)
- Myeloid cells (granulocytes, monocytes, RBC, megakaryocytes)

Immune System Introduction

The immune system provides defense against infectious agents such as viruses, fungi, bacteria, and parasites.
The immune system consists of a diverse population of leukocytes located within every tissue of the body and lymphoid organs.
Lymphoid organs are interconnected by the lymphatic circulation.

Types of Immunity

There are two types of immunity: innate immunity and adaptive immunity.

Innate Immunity

Innate immunity provides immediate defense against infection.
It involves physical barriers, such as skin and mucous membranes, and cellular responses, such as neutrophils and macrophages.

Cytokines

Cytokines are signaling molecules that coordinate immune responses.
They are involved in cell-to-cell communication and activate immune cells.

Antigens and Antibodies

Antigens are substances that stimulate an immune response.
Antibodies are proteins produced by B cells in response to antigen recognition.
Antibodies bind to specific antigens, marking them for destruction.

Classes of Antibodies

There are five classes of antibodies: IgA, IgD, IgE, IgG, and IgM.
Each class has distinct functions and characteristics.

Action of Antibodies

Antibodies neutralize pathogens by binding to them.
They also activate complement proteins, which help eliminate pathogens.

Antigen Presentation

Antigen presentation is the process by which antigen-presenting cells (APCs) present antigens to T cells.
APCs, such as dendritic cells, process and display antigens on their surface.

Cells of Adaptive Immunity

Adaptive immunity involves the activation of T cells and B cells.
T cells directly kill infected cells, while B cells produce antibodies.

T Lymphocytes

T lymphocytes are a type of T cell that matures in the thymus.
They recognize and respond to antigen-presenting cells.

Types of T Lymphocytes

There are two main types of T lymphocytes: CD4+ (helper) T cells and CD8+ (cytotoxic) T cells.
CD4+ T cells help activate B cells and other immune responses, while CD8+ T cells directly kill infected cells.

B Lymphocytes

B lymphocytes are a type of B cell that produces antibodies.
They mature in the bone marrow and recognize antigens through their surface receptors.

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