Rediscovery of Classical Works

Key Concept 1.1: Rediscovery of Classical Works

• Rediscovery of works from ancient Greece and Rome, along with natural world observation, changed Europeans' views.
• Italian Renaissance humanists like Petrarch revived classical literature, creating new philological approaches and promoting secularism and individualism.
• Printing press spread the Humanist revival of Greek and Roman texts, challenging universities and the Catholic Church.
• Education shifted from theology to classical texts and scientific inquiry.
• Revival of civic humanist culture occurred supporting Greek and Roman political institutions in Italian city-states, modeling secular political behavior.
• Printing press helped spread the Renaissance beyond Italy, encouraging vernacular literature and national cultures in the 1450s.
• Protestant reformers used the printing press to disseminate their ideas, spurring religious reform.
• Visual arts incorporated Renaissance ideas, used to promote personal, political, and religious goals.
• Italian Renaissance rulers and popes commissioned classical-style paintings and architecture incorporating naturalism and geometric perspective.
• Northern Renaissance retained a religious focus resulting in human-centered naturalism, considering individuals and everyday life in artistic representation.
• Mannerist and Baroque artists used distortion, drama, and illusion, commissioned by monarchies, city-states, and the church to promote stature and power.
• New science ideas based on observation, experimentation, and mathematics challenged classical views of the cosmos, nature, and the human body.
• Copernicus, Galileo, and Newton questioned ancient authority and developed a heliocentric view.
• Physicians like William Harvey made anatomical and medical discoveries presenting the body as an integrated system and challenging humoral theory proposed by Galen.
• Francis Bacon and René Descartes defined inductive and deductive reasoning, which promoted experimentation and the use of mathematics.
• Alchemy and astrology appealed to elites/natural philosophers, sharing a belief in a predictable, knowable universe with new science.

Key Concept 1.2: Religious Pluralism's Challenge

• The Protestant and Catholic Reformations changed theology, religious institutions, culture, and attitudes toward wealth.
• Christian humanism, like Erasmus' writings, used Renaissance learning for religious reform.
• Reformers Martin Luther and John Calvin criticized Catholic abuses and established new Christian doctrine interpretations.
• Some Protestant groups believed wealth accumulation was a sign of God's favor.
• Catholic Reformation, exemplified by the Jesuit Order and the Council of Trent, revived the church and cemented the division within Christianity.
• Religious reform increased state control and provided justifications for challenging authority.
• Monarchs and princes like Henry VIII and Elizabeth I initiated religious reform to control religious life and morality.
• Some Protestants, like Calvin and the Anabaptists, refused to recognize subordination of the church to the secular state.
• Religious conflicts became a basis for challenging monarchs' control.
• Conflicts among religious groups overlapped with political and economic competition.
• Religious reform issues exacerbated conflicts between monarchy and nobility, as in the French wars of religion.
• Habsburg rulers confronted the Ottoman Empire while attempting to restore Catholic unity unsuccessfully.
• States exploited religious conflicts to promote political/economic interests.
• A few states allowed religious pluralism to maintain domestic peace.

Key Concept 1.3: European Exploration and Colonization

• Europeans driven by commercial and religious motives to explore/colonize overseas.
• European states sought direct access to gold, spices, luxury goods for wealth and state power.
• Mercantilism gave the state a role in promoting commercial development and acquiring colonies.
• Christianity was a stimulus for exploration for spread and conquering indigenous civilizations.
• Advances in navigation, cartography, and military technology enabled establishing colonies/empires.
• Europeans established overseas empires/trade networks through coercion and negotiation.
• The Portuguese had a commercial network along the African coast, in South and East Asia, and in South America in the late 15th and throughout the 16th centuries.
• The Spanish had colonies across the Americas, the Caribbean, and the Pacific, making Spain a dominant state in Europe in the 16th century.
• France, England, and the Netherlands established their own colonies and trading networks to compete with Portuguese and Spanish dominance in the 17th century.
• Competition for trade led to conflicts and rivalries among European powers in the 17th and 18th centuries.
• Colonial expansion led to global exchange of goods, flora, fauna, cultural practices, and diseases, some indigenous civilizations were destroyed, a shift toward European dominance, and the expansion of the slave trade.
• Exchange of goods shifted economic power in Europe from Mediterranean to Atlantic states into an expanding world economy.
• Columbian Exchange of new plants, animals, and diseases fostered economic opportunities and facilitated subjugation and destruction of native communities.
• Plantation economies in the Americas and native population decimation led to expanded African slave trade by Europeans.

Key Concept 1.4: European Society and Economic Change

• Commercial and agricultural capitalism shaped European society/everyday life, medieval structures remained.
• Economic change produced new social patterns, traditional hierarchy/status persisted.
• Innovations in banking and finance promoted growth of urban financial centers/money economy.
• Commerce growth produced a new economic elite related to traditional land-holding elites.
• Established hierarchies defined social status in rural/urban settings.
• Most Europeans worked in agriculture, lives revolved around seasons/village/manor, economic changes altered rural production/power.
• Subsistence agriculture was rule, three-crop field rotation in the north, two-crop in the Mediterranean.
• Price revolution contributed to capital accumulation and market economy expansion, benefiting large landowners.
• Serfdom was codified in eastern Europe, where nobles dominated economic life on large estates.
• Landlords attempted to increase revenues by restricting/abolishing traditional peasant rights led to revolt.
• Population shifts/commerce growth caused cities to expand, stressed political/social structures.
• Population recovered to pre-Great Plague level in the 16th century, agricultural commodities increased more sharply than wages, reducing living standards for some.
• Migrants to cities challenged merchant elites/craft guilds' ability to govern, strained resources.
• Social dislocation/shifting religious authority left city governments tasked with regulating public morals.
• Family was primary social/economic institution, took multiple forms.
• Rural/urban households worked as units, men/women engaged in separate but complementary tasks.
• Renaissance/Reformation raised debates about female education/roles in family, church, society.
• From the late 16th century, Europeans responded to economic/environmental challenges by delaying marriage/childbearing.
• The European marriage pattern restrained population growth/improved families' economic condition.
• Popular culture/leisure activities/rituals reinforced communal ties/norms.
• Leisure activities organized by religious calendar/agricultural cycle, communal.
• Local/church authorities enforced communal norms with public humiliation.
• Witchcraft accusations peaked between 1580-1650, reflecting folk ideas and upheaval.

Key Concept 1.5: Sovereignty and Political Centralization

• Struggle for sovereignty within/among states resulted in varying degrees of political centralization.
• New concept of sovereign state/secular systems of law played a key role in creating new political institutions.
• New monarchies established a centralized modern state by monopolizing tax collection, employing military force, dispensing justice, and determining subjects' religion.
• Peace of Westphalia (1648) accelerated the decline of the Holy Roman Empire by granting princes, bishops, and local leaders control over religion.
• Commercial/professional groups gained power and played a greater role in political affairs.
• Italian political fragmentation provided background for new concepts of the secular state.
• Competitive state system led to new diplomacy/warfare patterns.
• Religion declined importance due to the Peace of Westphalia while the concept of power balance became important in diplomacy/military objectives.
• Military technology advances led to new warfare forms, including a greater reliance on infantry, firearms, mobile cannon, elaborate fortifications, heavier taxation, and a larger bureaucracy.
• Power competition between monarchs, corporate/minority language groups produced different governmental authority distributions.
• The English Civil War exemplified monarchs' competition between competing groups.
• Monarchies seeking power faced nobles wishing to retain shared governance/regional autonomy.
• Minority identities based on language/culture resisted the dominant national group.

Key Concept 2.1: Political Sovereignty Models

• Different models impacted state relationships and between states and individuals.
• Absolute monarchy was established over the course of the 17th and 18th centuries in much of Europe.
• Aristocracy's social position and privileges were preserved but absolute monarchies limited participation in governance.
• Louis XIV and Jean-Baptiste Colbert extended state control over the French population.
• States in eastern and central Europe experimented with enlightened absolutism in the 18th century.
• Over the nobility's authority was not consolidated by the Polish Monarchy. It led to Poland's partition by Prussia, Russia, and Austria, and its disappearance from the map of Europe.
• Peter the Great "westernized" Russia, Catherine the Great continued the process.
• Challenges to absolutism resulted in alternative political systems.
• Through assertions of Parliament rights, civil war and the Glorious Revolution protected gentry and aristocracy rights.
• Dutch Republic created via Protestant revolt against Habsburg monarchy developed urban gentry and rural landholders to protect trade and rights.
• After 1648, dynastic/state interests and expanding colonial empires influenced diplomacy and led to war.
• As a result of HR Empire limitation, Prussia rose to power and Habsburgs shifted their empire eastward.
• Battle of Vienna enabled by Austrian defeat of the Turks in 1683 caused the Ottomans to cease their westward expansion.
• Nearly continuous wars of Louis XIV’s both pursued dynastic and state interests, provoked a European power coalition to oppose him.
• Rivalry between France and Britain resulted in world wars fought both in European and colonial territories with Britain supplanting France.
• The French Revolution challenged order fundamentally, a combination of long-term and short-term social/political causes and Enlightenment ideas as well as economic crises.
• The French Revolution's initial phase established a constitutional monarchy, increased popular participation and abolished hereditary privileges.
• Execution of Louis XVI led to Jacobin republic and opposition and Reign of Terror was put in place.

Key Concept 2.2: Expansion of European Commerce

• Increase in commerce accelerated the expansion of a global economic network.
• Early modern Europe created a market economy providing a foundation for global role.
• Labor/trade were increasingly freed from restrictions.
• The Agricultural Revolution increased productivity/food supply.
• Putting-out system expanded as laborers produced for markets.
• Market economy development led to new financial practices/institutions.
• European-dominated worldwide network contributed to European revolutions in agriculture, industry, and consumerism.
• Mercantilist policies were followed by states drawing resources from colonies.
• New World product demand grew and the Transatlantic Slave-Labor systems expanded in the 17th and 18th centuries.
• Overseas products and influences helped develop a consumer culture.
• The importation/transplantation of agricultural American products contributed to the increase of food supply in Europe.
• Raw materials, finished goods, laborers and markets were supplied for commercial/industrial enterprises in Europe from foreign lands.
• Commercial rivalries influenced diplomacy and warfare among states.
• European sea powers competed for Atlantic influence in the 18th century.
• British and Dutch domination resulted from rivalries in Asia.

Key Concept 2.3: Scientific Revolution's Spread

• Spread of Scientific Revolution concepts and practices and the Enlightenment's application of these concepts and practices to political, social, and ethical issues leading to an increased but not unchallenged emphasis on reason in European culture.
• Thought focused on empiricism, skepticism, human reason, rationalism, and classical knowledge challenging assumptions about social order, government, and the role of faith.
• Voltaire and Diderot used Scientific Revolution principles to society and human institutions.
• Locke and Rousseau developed new politics based on natural rights/social contract.
• Rousseau offered controversial arguments for excluding women from political life, principles of equality aside.
• New public venues/print media popularized Enlightenment ideas.
• Variety of institutions, such as salons, explored and disseminated Enlightenment culture.
• Increasingly numerous materials spread to the public opinion despite censorship.
• Natural sciences, literature, and popular culture increasingly exposed Europeans to other peoples from outside Europe.
• New political/economic theories challenged absolutism and mercantilism.
• Society was conceived by political theories driven by self-interest/state originated in the consent of the governed.
• Adam Smith challenged mercantilist theory proposed free trade and a free market.
• Rational analysis of religious practices led to natural religion/religious toleration during the Enlightenment.
• Voltaire and Diderot created new philosophies.
• Religion was private rather than public.
• Governments extended toleration mostly by 1800.
• Arts shifted emphasis from religious themes/royal power to private life/public good.
• Baroque art and music promoted religiosity and monarchs illustrated power.
• Commercial/bourgeois society increasingly reflected in the 18th century, Neoclassicism expressed new Enlightenment ideals of citizenship and political participation.
• While world ideas/culture were dominated by Enlightenment there was the need to express emotions and feelings.
• Limited reliance on reason and emphasize emotions.
• As a challenge to the enlightenment, emotional reason led to Romanticism.
• Consistent with the Romantic Movement, movements occurred, such as Methodism founded by John Wesley.
• Revolution, war, and rebellion demonstrated the emotional power of mass politics and nationalism.

Key Concept 2.4: Shaping of Everyday Life

• Demographic, environmental, medical, and technological changes shaped everyday experiences.
• Small landholdings, low productivity, poor transportation/weather limited/disrupted food supply, caused famine in the 17th century.
• Middle of higher agricultural productivity/transportation increased food supply, reducing demographic crises by the 18th century.
• Population growth and the plague disappeared as a major disease, inoculation reduced smallpox mortality by the 18th century.
• New concern for privacy shaped the consumer revolution, encouraged purchasing new goods for homes, and created new leisure venues/activities.
• Demographic patterns/commercial revolution affected family/private life by the 18th century.
• Family limited by European marriage patterns/birth control methods despite that illegitimate births increased. As mortality decreased and commercial wealth increased, more space/resources had to be dedicated to child rearing.
• Urban life was transformed and new opportunities in the cities increased labor creating economic opportunities.
• Agricultural Revolution produced more food w fewer workers, rural areas migrated into cities in search of jobs.
• Government strained on providing a healthy environment and traditional values eroded by the growth of cities.
• Poverty concentration/crime was to be addressed in order to increase political marginal groups.

Key Concept 3.1: Industrial Revolution's Spread

• Industrial Revolution spread from Great Britain to continent, state played a bigger role.
• Textile/iron/steel production, new transportation, unique political and social climates made Great Britain's industrial dominant.
• Ready supplies of coal/iron promoted industrial growth.
• Economic institutions and human capital helped Britain lead industrialization, mostly privately.
• Government promoted commercial and industrial interests because they were represented in Parliament.
• Industrialization took root in continental Europe, sometimes w state sponsorship.
• Gradual pacing of France's moving caused less of an industrial dislocation, because they had government support.
• Industrialization by Prussia allowed its leadership to the unified Germany.
• Lack of resources, geography, dominance of land elites, persistence of serfdom, not enough government caused easter/southern areas to suffer with their developments.
• More areas of Europe faced activity in the second industrial revolution (1870).
• Mechanization/factory systems became the modes of production by 1914.
• Higher levels and a global network were the result of new technologies.
• Government/corporations sought to manage the market through monopolies.

Key Concept 3.2: Effects of Industrialization on Everyday Life

• Experiences were shaped by industrialization and level of industrial development.
• Development of new classes grew w the industrial regions.
• Socioeconomic labor change led to self-conscious proletariat and the bourgeoisie.
• Europe's elite continued 20th dominance.
• Through participation, class identity developed, trade/work unions developed.

Key Concept 3.3: Political Revolutions

• Political and industrial revolutions triggered ideological government and collective responses.
• Ideologies took root in society as response to industrial/political revolutions.
• Debate on the extent the groups needed to participate in governance was emphasized under popular sovereignty.
• Republicans demanded wealth/power while some argued such rights should be extended to women.
• Conservative ideology supported authorities based on human nature as unperfectible.
• Socialists called for resources, scientific critique in capitalism and evolved more.
• Anarchists deemed authority unnecessary and replaced society based on corporation.
• Nationalism emphasized loyalty (romantic idealism, liberal reform, political unification, racialism w anti-semitism).
• Jewish nationalism responded late in the century because there was growing anti-semitism throughout Europe.
• W increased problems, government/social societies responded that were made by industrialization and at times based on pressure.
• With challenges faced, the liberalism that transformed unhealthy cities reformed prisons.
• The public goals for nationalism were advanced via public education.
• For social/economic/political reform, parties emerged as sophisticated vehicles.
• Unions and movements promoted factors that developed into political parties.
• Feminists pressed legal and working conditions while governments assisted many for the poor.

Key Concept 3.4: International Stability in Europe

• International stability was difficult for states in an age of nationalism and revolutions.
• Preserve status quo while remaining conservative aided with congress systems.
• Used the concert of Europe via Metternich for his liberal revolutions.
• Conservatives re-established control.
• Rev exploited status.
• 1848 was triggered to challenged conservative politicians and create a divide.
• Movements were caused w breakdowns that created conditions in which states were unified.
• The war gave rise.
• Conservative leaders used Napoleon, cavour, and Otto.

Key Concept 3.5: European Global Control and Tensions

• Intensification spurred from a variety of motives and methods including tension.
• Ventures were driven by power and politics in Africa/Asia.
• To compete caused concern and rivalries.
• Raw materials drove people to colonize that broke free politically.
• Claiming superiority justified European imperialism.
• Developments helped w imperialism and advanced weaponry.
• Communications and tech helped the establishment.
• Medicine survival in Africa.
• Foreign created tensions and states and strained.
• Styles were provoked and were caused because they acquired colonies.
• People challanged Euro imperialism through moments from imperialism and culture

Key Concept 3.6: European Ideas and Culture

• European ideas and culture were expressed w tension between objectives one hand.
• Broke in the romantics and placed emphasis on intuition.
• Broke w rationality.
• The themes while responding they were expressed by the romantics.
• The revolutions were turned and realist materialism.
• The scientists emphasized natures while analysis was provided.
• Darwin provided account w his science for biological evolution and provided account for racism.
• Capatilism was given to the socialists w his critique and society while deterministics

Key Concept 4.1: Total War and Political Instability

• Total war/instability led to a polarized state order, Cold War.
• WWI caused interaction of factors.
• Nationalism/competition tuned a regional dispute into WWI.
• Traditional warfare led to troop losses.
• Effects led to revolutions.
• Global spread was quick and that transformed into a conflict.
• The world relations shifted/US emerged.
• Diplomatic goals pitted peace over power to punish Germany and leave w few that were satisfied.
• Clashed ideals/states went power creating issues.
• League of nations began to prevent wars, weakes by nonparticipating members w US, Soviets.
• Guilt hindered.
• The interwar period in fascism and the failure of appeasement created challenges.
• Rearm and capital were expanded w Union support.
• Blitzkrieg combined ww Axis won.
• Tech helped.

Key Concept 4.2: Conflicts within European States

• Internal war caused stress, relationships, challenged fascism.
• Marxism created revolution causing political inequality.
• WWI cause problems.
• Insurections undermined.
• Protracted war between communists.
• Compromised performance was helped via some free market.
• Undertook modern with repercussions.
• Modern Soviet Union came at high price through liquidation, rivals.
• W the rising communism was due and rooted in the prewar w unorganized transitions

Key Concept 4.3: Knowledge Relevancy

• During the century different intellectual changed the knowledge.
• That what broke.
• And war.
• The confidence began.
• World economic became the new.
• That all created postermisms.
• The results.

Key Concept 4.4: Change over Time.

• Improvements over time.
• Lost a generation while created women and the societies.
• Created over the years over 20 century.
• Modern had the comfort.
• Time turned space into daily connections.
• Lives were defined by these responsibilities.
• The military.
• Women earned more.