Recordkeeping Through the Ages

Questions and Answers

What was the outcome of the 1890 census?

It was never completed

It took five million dollars to complete

It was completed in one year

It saved the government five million dollars (correct)

What company did Hollerith build?

The State Library of Western Australia

The British Royal Archives

International Business Machines (IBM) (correct)

The Archives of Ontario

What was unveiled at the Columbian Exposition in Chicago, Illinois in 1893?

The first archive

The first computer

The first telephone

The filing cabinet (correct)

What was published in 1922?

A Manual of Archive Administration Signup and view all the answers

What is the name of the corporate archives and history program?

The AT&T Archives and History Center Signup and view all the answers

What is depicted in the drawing found on the cave wall of Leang Tedongnge on the Indonesian island of Sulawesi?

A depiction of three warty pigs hunted for food Signup and view all the answers

What was used as an accounting method to record animals around 4000 BCE?

Tokens with wedge-like shapes engraved into the clay Signup and view all the answers

What was the purpose of recordkeeping in ancient Egypt?

For commercial and religious purposes Signup and view all the answers

What was the estimated number of clay tablets in the Royal Archives of Ebla?

20,000 Signup and view all the answers

What did the Royal Archives of Ebla primarily contain records about?

Economic matters Signup and view all the answers

Where was the Royal Archives of Ebla located?

Modern-day Syria Signup and view all the answers

What material was widely used for record-keeping in ancient Greece and Rome?

Papyrus Signup and view all the answers

What led to the development of parchment in ancient Greece?

The supply of papyrus was cut off by Egypt Signup and view all the answers

Who is considered the father of archival science?

Jacob von Rammingen Signup and view all the answers

What was the main purpose of the machine patented by Queen Anne of England in 1714?

To impress or transcribe letters that would last longer than writing Signup and view all the answers

What was the main innovation of Herman Hollerith's solution for the 1890 U.S. Census?

The use of punched cards for computation Signup and view all the answers

When was the papermaking process developed in China?

Second century CE Signup and view all the answers

Who published De Re Diplomatica, a treatise on diplomatics?

Jean Mabillon Signup and view all the answers

What was the main impact of Johann Gutenberg's invention of moveable type?

A revolution in mass communication Signup and view all the answers

What was the main advantage of the typewriter invented by Christopher Latham Sholes?

It produced records and correspondence more quickly and easily Signup and view all the answers

What was the purpose of the General Register House in Edinburgh?

To store public records of Scotland Signup and view all the answers

What is a common characteristic of recordkeeping methods throughout history?

They were often tangible and portable Signup and view all the answers

What was the benefit of completing the 1890 census in three years?

It saved the government five million dollars Signup and view all the answers

What was the significance of the Sumerians' invention?

It was the precursor to the cuneiform writing system Signup and view all the answers

What was the significance of the year 1903 in the context of archives?

The State Library of Western Australia was authorized to accept official records Signup and view all the answers

What is a difference between the early writing tablet and modern recordkeeping methods?

The medium used for recordkeeping has changed Signup and view all the answers

What can be inferred about the Royal Archives of Ebla?

It was a repository for records about the daily lives of citizens Signup and view all the answers

What was the title of the book published by Sir Hilary Jenkinson in 1922?

A Manual of Archive Administration Signup and view all the answers

What is the current purpose of the AT&T Archives and History Center?

To serve the business needs of the Fortune 13 company and the scholarly needs of global researchers Signup and view all the answers

What is a common thread among ancient civilizations' recordkeeping methods?

They were used to document transactions and daily life Signup and view all the answers

What is a characteristic of the early writing tablet pictured in figure 1.1?

It is approximately the size of a modern smartphone Signup and view all the answers

Where was the Archives of Ontario, Canada founded?

Ontario, Canada Signup and view all the answers

What can be inferred about the development of recordkeeping methods?

They evolved as humans developed new writing skills Signup and view all the answers

What was introduced at the Columbian Exposition in Chicago, Illinois in 1893?

The first filing cabinet Signup and view all the answers

What is a significance of the discoveries on cave walls?

They are the earliest records of human life Signup and view all the answers

What was the primary reason for the development of parchment in ancient Greece?

The scarcity of papyrus due to Egypt's cessation of supply to Pergamum Signup and view all the answers

What was the focus of Jean Mabillon's treatise De Re Diplomatica?

The systematic analysis of written texts to establish provenance Signup and view all the answers

What was the significance of Johann Gutenberg's invention of moveable type?

It enabled mass communication and printing of the Gutenberg Bible Signup and view all the answers

What was the role of the Lord Clerk Register in Scotland?

To manage the national archives Signup and view all the answers

What was the primary innovation of Herman Hollerith's solution for the 1890 U.S. Census?

The use of punched cards for computation Signup and view all the answers

What was the purpose of the General Register House in Edinburgh?

To serve as a repository for public records of Scotland Signup and view all the answers

What was the main advantage of the machine patented by Queen Anne of England in 1714?

It produced a lasting impression that could not be erased or counterfeited Signup and view all the answers

What was the main impact of the development of papermaking in China?

It replaced papyrus as the primary writing material in Europe Signup and view all the answers

What was the primary purpose of the appointment of the Town Clerk of the City of London?

To assume responsibility for the safekeeping of the city corporation's records Signup and view all the answers

What was the significance of Jacob von Rammingen's manuals of registry and archival management?

They provided best practices for recordkeepers Signup and view all the answers

What was the primary purpose of Emmett Leahy joining the National Archives in 1935?

To form a committee of examiners to analyze the records presented to the Archivist Signup and view all the answers

What was a key challenge faced by the National Archives in the late 1930s?

Lack of conformity in procedures, unprecedented growth in volume of documents, and duplicate records retained across all agencies Signup and view all the answers

What was the significance of the records lifecycle model developed by Emmett Leahy?

It controlled the creation, use, and disposition of records either by destruction or transfer to the National Archives Signup and view all the answers

Why did President Franklin D. Roosevelt have a recording machine installed in the Oval Office in 1940?

To maintain accurate records of press conferences Signup and view all the answers

What was the role of Robert D.W. Connor in the National Archives?

He was the first Archivist of the United States Signup and view all the answers

What was the primary driver for records management in the United States in the 20th century?

The federal government Signup and view all the answers

What was the significance of the National Archives' records management program?

It segregated records of temporary value from those with archival value Signup and view all the answers

What was the context in which Emmett Leahy developed the records lifecycle model?

Developing a records management program for federal agencies Signup and view all the answers

What was the result of the litigation known as the 'PROFS case'?

The court found that agency components of the Executive Office of the President needed to take further steps to ensure that complete records were preserved in either electronic or paper form. Signup and view all the answers

Why was a Special Prosecutor appointed against former President Donald Trump?

For violating the Presidential Records Act by taking classified and unclassified presidential records to his residence. Signup and view all the answers

What was the outcome of the investigation into President Biden's handling of classified records?

The committee declined to prosecute due to lack of evidence. Signup and view all the answers

What was the significance of the year 1994 in the context of White House email?

The White House email was archived in electronic form starting from this year. Signup and view all the answers

What was the reason for appointing a Special Counsel to investigate President Biden's handling of classified records?

To investigate allegations of mishandling classified information. Signup and view all the answers

What was the outcome of the litigation against former President Donald Trump?

The litigation is ongoing at the time of writing. Signup and view all the answers

What was found in President Biden's possession in November 2022 and January 2023?

Documents with classified markings. Signup and view all the answers

What was the result of the temporary restraining order against the White House?

The White House was prevented from destroying Iran-Contra records on NSC backup tapes. Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

Recordkeeping and Ancient Civilizations

The earliest records of human life are drawings found on cave walls, with an example being a depiction of three warty pigs hunted for food at least 45,500 years ago in the limestone cave of Leang Tedongnge on the Indonesian island of Sulawesi.
By 4000 BCE, tokens were used as an accounting method to record animals, with wedge-like shapes engraved into clay to represent quantity and a sign to indicate the type of animal.
The cuneiform writing system was created by the Sumerians, and by 3200 BCE, hieroglyphics were developed in Egypt for commercial and religious purposes to document land holdings, crop yields, and taxes.
Early writing tablets, like the one pictured in Figure 1.1, had tangible and mobile properties, approximately the size of today's cell phone, and recorded the allocation of beer during the Late Prehistoric period, 3100-3000 BCE.

Recordkeeping Development

The Royal Archives of Ebla contained an estimated 20,000 clay tablets written in Sumerian script from approximately 2250 BCE, providing a glimpse into the everyday lives of citizens.
Scrolls made of papyrus plant were used as a recording medium in Egypt from approximately 3000 BCE, and became a standard in Greece and Rome until circa 170 BCE.
Parchment was produced from thin sheets of sheepskin or goatskin in response to Egypt cutting off papyrus supply to Pergamum, an ancient Greek city.
Papermaking was developed in China in the second century CE, replacing papyrus in Europe by the ninth century.

Advancements in Recordkeeping Technologies

Johann Gutenberg perfected moveable type and printed the Gutenberg Bible in 1456, igniting a revolution in mass communication.
Positions were created to manage records, such as the Lord Clerk Register in Scotland and the Town Clerk of the City of London.
Best practices were documented, including Jacob von Rammingen's manuals of registry and archival management (1571) and Jean Mabillon's De Re Diplomatica (1681).
New technology was invented, including the first known patent for a machine or method for impressing or transcribing letters in 1714, and the manual typewriter invented by Christopher Latham Sholes in 1867.

Development of Repositories and Archives

The General Register House in Edinburgh was designed by Robert Adam in 1772 as a repository for public records of Scotland.
Numerous national archives were established in the 19th century, including those in the Netherlands, Portugal, Argentina, Italy, Spain, Canada, France, India, Ireland, and the Philippines.
State archives and historical societies were established in the United States, including those in New York, Rhode Island, Pennsylvania, Indiana, Maryland, Iowa, Nebraska, and Colorado.
The 1890 US Census used punched cards for computation, and the filing cabinet was invented in 1893 to organize and store paperwork.

Modern Recordkeeping and Archives

The early 20th century saw the establishment of additional state and national archives, along with laws and regulations to protect official records.
Examples include the State Library of Western Australia, the Archives of Ontario, Canada, and the British Royal Archives in Windsor Castle.
Corporate archives and history programs were established, such as the AT&T Archives and History Center, to serve business and scholarly needs.

Recordkeeping in Ancient Civilizations

The earliest records of human life were found on cave walls, with one depiction of three warty pigs hunted for food at least 45,500 years ago in the Indonesian island of Sulawesi.
By 4000 BCE, tokens were used as an accounting method to record animals, with wedge-like shapes engraved into the clay to represent quantity followed by a sign that indicated the type of animal.
By 3200 BCE, hieroglyphics were developed in Egypt for commercial and religious purposes to document land holdings, crop yields, and taxes.

Early Writing and Recordkeeping Mediums

The early writing tablet, approximately the size of today's cell phone, records the allocation of beer during the Late Prehistoric period, 3100-3000 BC.
The Royal Archives of Ebla contained an estimated 20,000 clay tablets written in Sumerian script that dated from approximately 2250 BCE.
Scrolls made of the papyrus plant were used as a recording medium from approximately 3000 BCE in Egypt.
Papyrus became a standard in Greece and Rome until circa 170 BCE when Egypt cut off its supply to Pergamum, leading to the development of parchment.

Recordkeeping: First Millennium through the Early Twentieth Century

The second century CE brought the development of a papermaking process in China, which replaced papyrus in Europe by the ninth century.
Paper was not used as a practical medium until Johann Gutenberg perfected moveable type and printed the Gutenberg Bible in 1456.
Positions were created to manage records, such as the appointment of the Lord Clerk Register in Scotland and the Town Clerk of the City of London.
Best practices were documented to assist recordkeepers, with notable contributors including Jacob von Rammingen and Jean Mabillon.

New Technologies and Repositories

In 1714, Queen Anne of England granted the first known patent for a machine or method for impressing or transcribing letters.
In 1772, the General Register House in Edinburgh was designed by Robert Adam to serve as a repository for the public records of Scotland.
Numerous national archives were established during the 19th century, including those in the Netherlands, Portugal, Argentina, Italy, Spain, Canada, France, India, Ireland, and the Philippines.
The manual typewriter was invented by Christopher Latham Sholes and marketed commercially in 1874.
Herman Hollerith used punched cards for computation, leading to the development of International Business Machines (IBM).
The filing cabinet was invented in 1893 at the Columbian Exposition in Chicago.

Twentieth-Century Developments

The early twentieth century ushered in additional state and national archives, along with the first of many laws and regulations to protect official records.
Notable archives include the State Library of Western Australia, the Archives of Ontario, Canada, the British Royal Archives, and the AT&T Archives and History Center.

Recordkeeping in the United States in the Twentieth Century

In 1934, Congress established the National Archives to centralize federal recordkeeping, and President Franklin D. Roosevelt signed legislation creating the National Archives.
Robert D.W. Connor was appointed as the first Archivist of the United States.
In 1935, Emmett Leahy joined the National Archives and formed a committee to analyze records and decide whether to destroy or dispose of them.
By 1937, the committee realized the enormity of the records problem due to lack of conformity in procedures, growth in document volume, and duplicate records across agencies.
The National Archives initiated a records management program to segregate temporary and archival records, with a records lifecycle model developed by Leahy.

Records Management Development

The Records Disposal Act of 1943 defined records and authorized the National Archives Council to develop procedures for disposing of unneeded records and reproducing permanent records on microfilm.
The Act was amended in 1945 to include the government-wide General Schedule (GS), allowing for systematic disposal of government records.
In 1950, the Federal Records Act codified records management policies and practices, establishing the National Archives and Records Administration (NARA) to preserve records of permanent historical value.

Commercial Records Center (CRC) Industry

Emmett Leahy played a central role in the emergence of the CRC industry, becoming the first executive director of the National Records Management Council in 1948.
He formed the Business Archives Center, perhaps the first CRC in the U.S.
By the 1950s and 1960s, CRCs emerged in large metropolitan areas to store inactive records for large corporations and organizations.

Presidential Recordkeeping

In 1940, President Franklin D. Roosevelt had a recording machine installed in the Oval Office to record conversations.
Presidents Truman and Eisenhower also recorded conversations, while President John F. Kennedy installed a secret recording network to protect himself against officials.
President Richard M. Nixon employed a secret recording system, which was discovered in 1973 during the Watergate scandal.
The Presidential Records Act (PRA) of 1978 established public ownership of records generated by subsequent presidents and their staffs.

Electronic Records and Litigation

In 1987, Lt. Col. Oliver North testified about his role in the Iran-Contra affair, including destroying copies of "PROFS notes" (early versions of e-mail records).
The "PROFS case" resulted in courts finding that electronic versions of e-mail records contained metadata not captured in paper records.
In 1994, White House email was archived in electronic form, and in 1995, NARA issued electronic mail regulations applicable to all Executive branch agencies.
In 2021, it was revealed that President Donald Trump had taken over 30 boxes of classified and unclassified presidential records to his residence, in contravention of the Presidential Records Act.
In 2023, President Biden's personal lawyers found documents with classified markings in his possession, leading to an investigation and Special Counsel appointment.

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Description

Explore the evolution of recordkeeping practices from prehistoric times to the present day, highlighting the importance of documentation in human civilization.