Reconstruction Era: Amendments & Acts

• Government policy effects on society during Reconstruction (1865-1877)

War Aftermath

• The Civil War resulted in devastating costs and consequences
• The war engaged over 3 million men, with 500,000 fatalities, representing approximately 2% of the population
• Sherman's March in 1864 involved the Union army's destruction, leaving cities in ruins
• Two-thirds of southern railroads were destroyed, alongside one-third of livestock
• Reconstruction questions included the political status of Confederate states
• Concerns included the integration of 4 million freed Black Americans and rebuilding the South
• The initial focus of the government was on the readmission of the South to the Union

Presidential Reconstruction: Lincoln

• Lincoln began planning for reconstruction before the war concluded
• Lincoln's "Ten Percent Plan" was issued on December 8, 1863
• Southerners could regain U.S. citizenship by pledging loyalty
• States with at least 10% of 1860 voters taking the oath could form a state government
• These governments must be Republican, recognize slave freedom, and educate black people
• Radical Republicans considered Lincoln's plan too lenient
• Congress refused representatives from Tennessee, Louisiana, and Arkansas
• The Wade-Davis Bill, passed in July 1864, demanded loyalty oaths from a majority of southerners
• Confederate officials faced limitations on voting
• Lincoln pocket-vetoed the Wade-Davis Bill by not signing it
• Lincoln visited Richmond on April 5, 1865, and the South surrendered on April 9
• On April 14th, in Ford's Theater, John Wilkes Booth fatally shot Lincoln
• Booth, an actor, supported slavery and believed Lincoln threatened the South
• Lincoln died the next morning, and Vice President Andrew Johnson became president

Presidential Reconstruction: Johnson

• Johnson believed Reconstruction belonged to the executive branch
• He aimed to quickly restore Confederate states to the Union
• Johnson took office during Congress's recess, controlling Reconstruction from April to December
• Johnson's Reconstruction Plan, or "Restoration", was introduced in the summer of 1865
• Similar to Lincolns plan, Southern states had to withdraw secession, swear Union allegiance, and ratify the 13th Amendment
• Johnson pardoned over 13,000 former Confederates, angering Radical Republicans
• By December 1865, seceded states formed new governments awaiting Congressional approval

Congressional (Radical) Reconstruction

• Congress asserted control over Reconstruction when it reconvened on December 4, 1865
• The clerk of Congress refused to acknowledge southern delegates
• Congress passed the Civil Rights Act of 1866, granting citizenship to black people
• The act invalidated discriminatory laws and was vetoed by Johnson, but Congress overrode the veto on April 9th, 1866
• The move affirmed the national government's duty to protect citizens' rights
• From May 1st to May 3rd, racial violence ignited in Memphis
• White mobs targeted black people, destroying churches and schools
• It took the army three days to regain control of Memphis
• At least 48, mainly black, people were killed
• A similar massacre occurred in New Orleans three months later, resulting in 40 deaths
• Southern violence spurred the 14th Amendment's creation and passage

Early Reconstruction Amendments

• The 13th Amendment abolished slavery and was ratified in December 1865
• The 14th Amendment, ratified in 1868, guaranteed US citizenship to anyone, regardless of race, born in the United States
• The 14th Amendment overturned the Dred Scott decision and invalidated discriminatory legislation such as the Black Codes
• It passed Congress in June 1866 after testimony from victims in the Memphis Massacre
• Initially, every Southern state government, except Tennessee, refused to ratify the amendment

Military Reconstruction

• Every former state, apart from Tennessee, lacked representation and federal election influence
• The 1866 midterm elections gave Republicans significant Congressional majorities, with 173 seats compared to just 47 for the Democrats
• By 1867, Radical Republicans had control
• Military Reconstruction sought to reorganize the South
• On March 2, 1867, Congress passed the Military Reconstruction Act over Johnson's veto
• The act divided southern states into five military districts overseen by Union generals
• To rejoin the Union, rebel states had to adopt new constitutions, enfranchise black men, elect new state governments, and ratify the 14th Amendment
• Southerners referred to this "bayonet rule"
• Congress added Supplementary Reconstruction Acts, directing military commanders to register voters
• Provisional governments under Johnson were removed, leading to the registration of blacks and whites who had not backed secession
• White southerners who cooperated with Radical Reconstruction were labelled "scalawags"
• Northerners moving south to advance the reforms were called "carpetbaggers."
• Black voter registration rose from below 1% to over 80% by 1867, mostly voting Republican
• By June 1868, six of the former Confederate states were admitted, having met Congress's requirements
• The 14th Amendment was officially ratified in reaching the necessary ¾ vote by the state legislatures, in July 1868

Impeachment and 1868 Election

• By June 1868, six Confederate states were admitted after meeting Congress's demands
• The 14th Amendment was ratified in July 1868
• Johnson was impeached weeks earlier but escaped removal after violating the Tenure of Office Act
• He was the first U.S. president to be impeached
• By the 1868 election, only Virginia, Mississippi, and Texas remained outside the Union
• Violence against black voters resulted in a Republican withdrawal from campaigning in Georgia and Louisiana
• Over 500,000 black men voted, leading every southern state excepts Georgia and Louisiana to vote Republican
• Ulysses S. Grant won

The 15th Amendment

• Following the 1868 election, Radical Republicans sent the 15th Amendment to states for ratification in February 1869
• The 15th Amendment forbade states from denying the right to vote based on race or servitude
• Virginia, Mississippi, and Texas had to ratify the 15th amendment to be readmitted
• Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Susan B. Anthony opposed the 15th Amendment, as it omitted the right of women to vote
• This and the 14th amendment – parts of which only protected "males" - split the women's suffrage movement into two, leading to decades of bitter partisanship between the two wings
• The National Woman Suffrage Organization (NWSA) formed in 1869 and favored a federal solution to women's voting rights
• The NWSA only admitted women and opposed the 15th Amendment
• The more conservative group, the American Woman Suffrage Association (AWSA), also formed in 1869
• The AWSA favored a state-by-state effort at securing women's suffrage and supported the 15th amendment and accepted both men and women members.

Ratification

• Virginia ratified the 15th Amendment in January 1870, followed by Mississippi in February, and Texas in March.
• The 15th Amendment was ratified on March 30th, 1870, readmitting all states

Key Reconstruction Takeaways

• Reconstruction redefined state-federal relationships and debated citizenship
• The 13th, 14th, and 15th amendments granted black people freedom, citizenship, equal protection, and voting rights.
• The women's rights moment was emboldened and divided over these amendments
• Reconstruction led to short-term successes and failed in the face of Southern resistance and waning Northern resolve

Explore the key legislation and amendments of the Reconstruction Era. Understand the impact of the 13th and 14th Amendments, the Civil Rights Act of 1866, and the Reconstruction Acts. Learn about Johnson's plan and the rise of the Radical Republicans.