Reading Comprehension and Writing Overview

• Reading involves recognizing symbols, pronouncing and spelling them, and understanding their meaning.
• Receptive skills involve receiving information, while productive skills involve producing it.

Four Types of Reading

• Skimming focuses on grasping the main idea.
• Scanning aims to locate specific information.
• Active reading involves interacting with the text.
• Analytical reading focuses on analyzing the text.

Benefits of Reading

• Improves accurate spelling.
• Demonstrates how to construct complex sentences.
• Encourages readers to be more experimental with language.
• Exposes readers to the thoughts of others.

Writing

• Writing turns thoughts into symbols for expression.
• The focus of both reading and writing is on the author's intended meaning, your own interpretation, and the comparison between the two.
• Meaning serves as the connection between reading and writing.

Reading Process

• Before reading, it's beneficial to understand the subject and formulate questions.
• Annotations are made during reading.
• Reflection occurs after reading.

Writing Process

• Prewriting involves choosing a topic, gathering insights from reading, identifying the audience, and determining the purpose.
• During writing, an introduction, body, and conclusion are developed.
• Revising is the final check before publishing.
• Writing can inform, persuade, or entertain.

Qualities of a Text

• Cohesion ensures the parts of the text are connected, creating structure.
• Coherence means the text has an overall meaning.
• Intentionality implies the writer’s attitude and purpose are clear.
• Acceptability means the text is recognized as coherent and usable.
• Informativity is the measure of new or expected information in the text.
• Situationality refers to the topic's cultural and situational appropriateness.
• Intertextuality suggests the text is linked to preceding discourse.

Discourse

• Discourse, derived from the Latin "discursus," is formal and often lengthy language use.
• It appears in journals, news articles, anecdotes, procedures, critiques, opinion pieces, research articles, and academic texts.

Purpose of Discourse

• To inform using facts as seen in textbooks, magazines, and newspapers.
• To persuade, aiming to convince as evident in essays, advertisements, and political speeches.
• To entertain, creating enjoyment as found in TV scripts, comic books, and romance novels.

Types of Discourse

• Academic discourse is formal and scholarly, exemplified by research papers.
• Literary discourse uses creative language, such as in poems, memoirs, and diaries.
• Culture in written discourse may dictate argumentation style, formality, voice, and organization.
• Social environment impacts accepted rules in settings like home, school, or community.
• Personal experiences reflect cultural themes and beliefs shaping people's lifestyles.
• Discourse markers are connecting words.

Basic Techniques in Selecting and Organizing Information

• Techniques involve processes, approaches, and methods for organizing ideas.
• Focus on key information only.

Brainstorming List

• Gathering ideas from everyone, a popular method.

Idea List

• Enumerating ideas in a list format.

Idea Map

• A visual representation of ideas.

Graphic Organizer

• Visual representation presenting the most important information.

Concept Map

• Creates relationships between concepts.

Narrative Map

• Used to tell a story.

Venn Diagram

• A diagram used to compare and contrast different elements.

Network Tree

• Represents family lineage or hierarchical structures.

Timeline

• Presents events in chronological order using dates.

Plot Diagram

• Also known as Freytag's Pyramid, illustrates the structure of a story.

Ishikawa Diagram

• Used for root cause analysis.

Cause & Effect Diagram

• Identifies the causes for possible effects.

Flow Chart

• Guides decision-making processes.

Hamburger Chart

• Used for structuring paragraphs.

Persuasion Map

• Used to convince people.

Problem Solution Map

• Analyzes problems and potential solutions with pros and cons.

Cycle Diagram

• Represents repetitive processes.

Series of Events Chain

• Illustrates linear sequences of events.

KWL Chart

• Tracks what you know, want to know, and have learned.

T Chart

• Compares the pros and cons of a subject.

Enrollment Process Flowchart

• Illustrates the steps in the enrollment process.

Outline

• Structured arrangement of words and patterns.
• Coordination ensures relevance of ideas.
• Subordination distinguishes between major and minor ideas.
• Division means no minor idea should stand alone.
• Parallel construction maintains consistent structure and format.

Types of Outline by Structure

• Topic outlines are shorter, using key topics or words.
• Sentence outlines are longer, using key sentences.

Types of Outline by Format

• Number-letter format uses Roman numerals, letters, and numbers.
• Decimal format uses decimal points for organization.

Thesis Statement

• The central idea of an essay, Following the formula: Q + S + R
• Q (Qualification): Opposing idea
• S (Stance): Claim
• R (Rational): Reason

Patterns of Development

• Helps to structure information effectively.
• Development patterns organize ideas into sentences and paragraphs to form a composition.

Basic Patterns of Development

• Narration tells a story with elements like setting, characters, and events.
• Description uses the five senses (touch, smell, hearing, sight, and taste).
• Definition explains the meaning of a term, idea, or concept, either scientifically/formally or subjectively/informally.
• Classification and division groups items into categories.
• Exemplification uses examples.
• Cause and effect identifies reasons and impacts.
• Comparison and contrast highlights similarities and differences.
• Problem & solution presents issues and actions to resolve them.
• Process analysis explains how something works.
• Persuasion aims to convince.

Paragraph Structure

• Topic sentence introduces the main point.
• Supporting sentences provide details.
• Concluding sentence summarizes the paragraph.

Properties of a Well-Written Text

• Easily understood and not a jumble.
• Organization is achieved through accurate arrangement of ideas.
• Cohesion & coherence provide structure & meaning.
• Language use communicates ideas effectively.
• Writing mechanics include grammar, spelling, capitalization, abbreviations, numbers, and punctuation.

Qualities of a Good Writing Style

• Avoid redundancies, clichés, wordiness, and overly complex language.
• Use a concise writing style.
• Use the third person point of view and avoid sexist language.
• Maintain an appropriate level of formality.

Grammar Reminders

• Uncountable nouns use singular verbs.
• Collective nouns are viewed as one unit.
• Use "in" with morning, afternoon, and evening; use "at" with night.
• Use "in" for cities, countries, or large areas; use "at" for more specific places.
• Use "at" for specific times; use "on" for specific days/dates; use "in" for months, years, or seasons.

Tense Usage

• Past: already happened.
• Present: currently happening.
• Future: will happen.
• Abbreviation: shortened word/phrase.
• Acronym: initials forming a word.
• Initialism: initials pronounced per letter.

Numbers in Writing

• Spell out numbers zero to nine.
• Use numerals for numbers ten and above.

Punctuation Marks

• Period: ends a sentence.
• Exclamation point: shows emotion.
• Question mark: asks a question.
• Quotation mark: encloses quoted material.
• Apostrophe: shows possession.
• Colon: used in ratios, titles, and subtitles.
• Parenthesis: encloses letters or numbers.
• Bracket: sets off clarifications.
• Hyphen: separates or joins words.
• Dash: indicates a sudden break in thought.
• Slash: separates words or shows alternatives.
• Semicolon: joins independent clauses.
• Ellipsis: indicates deleted words.
• Comma: signals pauses.

Guidelines for Academic Writing

• Always use Standard English.
• Avoid contractions (e.g. shouldn't).
• Avoid exclamation marks, unless in direct quotations.
• Use the full name of an institution or organization with the abbreviation in parenthesis on first mention, then use the abbreviation thereafter.
• Spell out numbers zero to nine and use figures for ten and above.
• Generally, citations are used in academic and formal texts, but sparingly in business texts.

Citation Styles

• APA (American Psychological Association) and CSE (Council of Science Editors) are used to prevent plagiarism.
• In-text citations are inside the body of the paper.
• References are at the end of the paper.
• Paraphrasing changes words while keeping the same meaning.
• Summarizing shortens the original text.
• Quoting uses the exact words with quotation marks.

APA Style Guidelines

• Narrative uses the word "and" instead of "&".
• Brackets can be inside parentheses.
• Moves from specific to general information.
• Use "p." for a single page and "pp." for multiple pages.
• DOI (Digital Object Identifier) is included.
• Begin with the author's name, followed by the year.

CSE (Council of Science Editors) Style

• Also formerly known as Council Biology Citation.
• Citations are in alphabetical order.
• Citation sequence follows the order of citation.
• No comma is used in the citation.
• Block quoting is used for passages longer than 40 words.

Identifying Claims and Reasons

• Arguments consist of a claim (stance) and a reason (answer to "why").
• Formal arguments clearly state the claim and present a well-developed chain of evidence, from personal experience to statistical data and expert testimony.

Argument and Claim

• Argument: aim to change attitudes, beliefs etc.
• Claim: a disputable statement the author is trying to persuade you to accept.

Reason

• The explanation of why people should believe a claim, which may include evidence

Steps to Reading Others' Arguments

• Identify the claim.
• State the main claim briefly and precisely.
• Identify the important reasons.

Types of Claims

• Value claim: good or bad.
• Factual claim: something existed, exists, or will exist.
• Policy claim: solutions or policies.

Types of Factual Claims

• Historical: about the past.
• Causal: cause and effect.
• Predictive: about the future.

Types of Intertextuality

• Allusion: indirect reference.
• Parody: imitation for mockery.
• Quotation: direct statement.
• Adaptation: reimagining.

Formulating Evaluative Statements & Determining Textual Evidence

• Evaluative statement: shows strengths and weaknesses objectively.
• Criteria: the standards for evaluation.

Steps in Formulating Evaluative Statements

• Read the entire text carefully.
• Identify positive and negative aspects.
• Suggest solutions to address the negative aspects.
• Provide concise and precise feedback with care and diligence.

Assertion

• A declarative sentence expressing one's belief, presented as an argument.

Types of Assertion

• Fact: proven objectively.
• Convention: based on tradition.
• Opinion: personal thoughts.
• Preference: personal choice.

Counterclaims

• Claims made to rebut a previous claim.

Elements of Argument

• Claim: stance.
• Counterclaim: opposing side.
• Evidence: support.
• Reason: explanation.

Textual Evidence

• Evidence found within the text.

Methods

• Paraphrasing: restating in your own words but the same.
• Referencing: mentioning a specific section.
• Quoting: directly restating a part of the text.

Evaluation Essay

• Provides evaluation of strengths and weaknesses.
• Includes criteria, judgment, and evidence.
• The Structure of the Evaluation Essay follows an introduction, body (summary and analysis), and conclusion.

Steps to Writing an Evaluation Essay

• Research.
• Formulate a thesis statement.
• Choose suitable criteria.
• Use reliable and sufficient supporting details.
• Review, revise, and rewrite.

Features of a Résumé

• Includes necessary contact information and should be tailored to the position and organization.
• Should be printed with black ink on white or ivory paper.
• Use action verbs to describe accomplishments.
• Respond to emails or messages within 24-48 hours.
• Includes sections on Education and work experience

Guidelines

• Use Arial, Helvetica, Garamond, or Times New Roman fonts.
• Maintain a 10-12 point font size.

Academic Writing

• Formal writing with specific vocabulary.

Purpose of Academic Writing

• To present information.

Qualities of Academic Writing

• Precision: specific data and figures.
• Complexity: uses noun-based phrases and nominalization (converting verbs to nouns).
• Formality: uses complete and formal words, avoids idioms, colloquial expressions, contractions, phrasal verbs, or informal verbs.
• Objectivity: object or topic comes first, passive voice is utilized.

Types of Academic Writing

• Critique paper: focuses on the strengths and weaknesses, offering suggestions.
• Concept paper: starts with an idea, proposing an outlined research or project proposal.
• Position paper: focuses on the stance or argument.
• Literature review: sorted according to themes, moving from general to specific information (deductive approach).
• Research report: summarizes a research paper with sections for Introduction, Methodology, Results, and Discussion.

Professional Correspondence

• Reflects competency and professionalism.

Application for Employment (Cover Letter)

• Emphasizes skills and how you will benefit the employer
• Each paragraph should have 3-5 sentences.
• Letterhead: Sender's information.
• Dateline: Date of writing.
• Inside address: Recipient's information (HR, President).
• Introduction, Body, and Conclusion
• Complimentary close: "Sincerely".
• Signature: Your signature.
• Signature block: Typed name.

Other Types of Letters

• Application letter for college admission: highlights skills and edge over other students.
• Recommendation letter
• Email, online etiquette
• Memorandum: to remember, inform, and persuade people within an organization.
• Excuse letter: explains the reason for absence.
• Minutes of the meeting: records the time and content of the meeting.