Reading and Writing Processing Approaches

• Reading involves decoding symbols to derive meaning, a form of language processing measured by reading comprehension.
• Writing uses symbols to communicate thoughts and ideas in a readable form.

Processing Approaches

• Top-down processing uses background information to predict language meaning, starting with background knowledge and context.
• Bottom-up processing understands language by looking at individual meanings or grammatical characteristics, moving from basic units to the whole text.

Aspects to Observe in a Text

• Writer's purpose: The reason behind writing, focusing on what the writer wants the reader to know, feel, or do, varying by discipline and goals.
• Different disciplines use different writing tones and styles according to the material and their audience.
• Reader's goal: Knowing your purpose helps you focus and find relevant information efficiently.
• Jargon and language particulars: Academic disciplines have their own specific languages; understanding them improves text comprehension.
• Readings are uniquely organized in different disciplines; understanding these structures helps locate key information easier.

Patterns of Development in Writing

• General to Specific (Deductive): Starts with a general statement and reaches a specific conclusion.
• Specific to General (Inductive): Starts with specific information and moves to broader concepts.
• Cause and Effect: Details why something happens and its relation to something else.
• Compare and Contrast: Shows similarities and differences between things.
• Problem-Solution: Identifies a problem and proposes a solution.
• Chronology or Narrative: Provides background or history of a topic. Transitional words can be used include then, next and finally.
• Classification and Division: Arranges information based on groups, parts, and categories.
• Description: Details what something looks like and its characteristics.
• Definition: Explains what something is.
• Exemplification: Provides examples of something.
• Persuasion: Describes an issue and expresses an opinion.
• Procedural: Explains how something happened, works, or is made.

Properties of a Well-Written Text

• Paragraph: A section of writing composed of sentences focusing on a single topic or idea. Consists of an introduction, body and conclusion.
• Organization: AKA arrangement, achieved when ideas are logically and accurately arranged.

Ways to Create a Plan for Writing

• Identify your thesis statement: The main idea or central argument of your essay.
• Create a word web: Helps organize ideas visually and provides more information about a word.
• Make an outline: A direct and clear map of your essay that provides details of the topic.

Properties of a Well-Written Text

• Cohesion: The grammatical and lexical relationship between different elements of a text.
• Coherence: Sentences are logically connected to create a meaningful whole.
• Conjunction: Used to link sentences and improve paragraph cohesion.

Transitional Devices

• Used as a bridge to connect ideas and improve paragraph cohesion, including;
• Addition: Adds more information or supports an idea.
• Contrast: Shows the difference between two ideas.
• Comparison: Shows similarity between two ideas or objects.
• Illustration/Example: Gives a specific example to support an idea.
• Location: Shows position or place.
• Causality: Shows why something happens or its result.
• Summary/Conclusion: Wraps up the main points.
• Emphasis: Highlights important ideas or points.

Properties of a Well Written Text

• Coherence (Clarity of ideas): Ideas are connected at the conceptual level through well-defended arguments and organized points.
• Cohesion (Connection between sentences): Connection of ideas at the sentence level for a smooth flow and connection of ideas.
• Unity: Achieved when a composition focuses on one idea with all supporting ideas relevant to the main thought.
• Diction: The choice of words affects the reader's interpretation.
• Language Use: Effectively communicating ideas without confusion. Effective language is specific, correct, familiar, and concise.
• Informal/Personal: Slang, local expressions, text messaging.
• Standard/Academic: Widely accepted words and phrases in books, magazines, and newspapers.
• Business/Technical: Scientific terms, jargon, and special expressions.

Principles in Language Use

• Use clear and concise sentences, ideally around 18 words long.
• Eliminate unnecessary words and phrases.
• Use active voice, where the subject performs the action.
• Remove "that" if the sentence makes sense without it.
• Avoid redundancies, clichés, wordiness, and highfalutin language.
• Use precise vocabulary to express ideas using fewer, better words.

Mechanics

• Focuses on the technicalities of the structure, including subject-verb agreement, prepositions, tenses, grammar, spelling, capitalization, abbreviations, acronyms, numbers, and punctuation marks.

Rules in Subject - Verb Agreement

• The pronoun “YOU” always takes a plural verb.
• If a sentence begins with HERE or THERE, the verb agrees with the subject which follows it.
• If two subjects, one single and one plural, are connected by EITHER/OR or NEITHER/NOR, the verb agrees with the nearer subject.
• A singular subject followed by intervening words or phrases such as WITH, AS WELL AS, IN ADDITION TO, ACCOMPANIED BY, TOGETHER WITH and NO LESS THAN, takes a singular verb.
• Singular subjects joined by AND require a plural verb, except when they mean one thing.
• If a singular subject is followed by a phrase containing a plural noun, the verb is singular.
• The indefinite pronouns SEVERAL, FEW, BOTH, MANY, OTHERS are always plural.
• The indefinite pronouns SOME, MOST, ALL, NONE are singular or plural according to the meaning of the sentence.
• When any of the following indefinite pronouns is the subject, the verb is singular: EVERYBODY, EACH, NO ONE, ANOTHER, ANYBODY, NOBODY, EVERY, NOTHING, EVERYTHING, ANYONE, EVERYONE, SOMEBODY, and SOMEONE.
• Expressions of time, money, weight and distance are singular even if the form is plural.
• When the amount of money refers to separate units, the verb is plural.
• When the word is preceded by A, it takes a plural verb. When it is preceded by THE, it takes a singular verb
• Certain nouns, though plural in form, are singular in meaning and therefore take singular verbs.
• Adjectives used as nouns are considered plural
• Collective nouns may be singular or plural depending on whether the individual members are acting individually or collectively. These nouns are: COMPANY, GROUP, COMMITTEE, CROWD, JURY, FLOCK, TEAM.

Punctuation Marks

• Punctuation makes writing easy to read and understandable.
• Period: Use at the end of a complete sentence or indirect question.
• Comma: Use to separate words or items in a list, a city from its state, the day of the month from the year, or two adjectives when "and" can be inserted between.
• Question Mark: Use only after a direct question.
• Exclamation Point: Use to show emphasis or excitement.
• Quotation Marks: Use to set off a direct quotation; periods and commas always go inside.
• Colon: Use to separate two independent clauses when the second is directly related to and emphasizes the first.
• Semicolon: Use between independent clauses linked in meaning with a transitional word.
• Apostrophe: Use to combine two words or show possession.
• Parenthesis: Use to enclose clarifying words or figures used as an aside.
• Follow capitalization rules.
• Avoid contractions.
• Mention full name in first mention, then use abbreviations.
• Write out numbers zero to ten, use numerals for 11 and higher.

Explicit and Implicit in a Written Text

• Explicit: Directly and clearly stated in the text.
• Implicit: Not clearly stated; requires the reader to infer.

Types of Claims

• Claims of Fact: Assert the truth or existence of something, tested by examining evidence.
• Claims of Policy: Specific actions needed to address issues presented in an argument.
• Claims of Value: Value judgments based on morals, standards, and norms.

Hypertext and Intertext

• Hypertext: Presents information non-linearly, linking interconnected topics with graphics, videos, and music.
• Intertext: Modeling of a text’s meaning by another text through similarities in language, genre, or discourse.