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Racism and Segregation in the 1920s and 1930s

• Jim Crow laws in the Southern United States enforced racial segregation and disenfranchisement of Black Americans after slavery, denying them the right to vote, use the same public facilities as whites, or live in many of the same neighborhoods.
• The Ku Klux Klan promoted white supremacy through violence and intimidation against African Americans, Jews, Catholics, and immigrants.
• The Ku Klux Klan aimed to maintain white racial dominance through intimidation and terror, promoting Anglo-Saxon and Protestant superiority.
• Eugenics gained popularity, promoting discriminatory practices against minorities and those seen as genetically "inferior".
• Eugenics was promoted in films and other media.
• The eugenics movement in Europe led to the sterilization of individuals deemed "defective" in countries like Denmark, Switzerland, Germany, Norway, and Sweden.
• German scientific racism categorized humans into racial hierarchies, with Aryans considered superior.
• German scientific racism considered Germans, particularly those of Aryan descent, superior.
• Nazi racial policies in the 1930s classified Jews, Poles, Roma, Sinti, and other Slavic peoples as subhuman.
• Australia's "White Australia" policy restricted non-European immigration.
• Australia's Immigration Restriction Act aimed to maintain a homogeneous white society.
• Australia forcibly removed Aboriginal children (Stolen Generations) to assimilate them into white society.
• The "White Australia" policy promoted assimilation of mixed-descent Aboriginal children to 'breed out' their Indigenous heritage, known as the Stolen Generations.
• Australia, like the US and Europe, used eugenics to justify Northern European superiority.

Segregation After the Formation of the Union

• The Union of South Africa needed unified "native policies" for its four colonies.
• The 1913 Land Act restricted black land ownership, reserving most land for whites, and beginning territorial segregation.
• The 1913 Land Act limited black access to land.
• The 1923 Native Urban Areas Act curbed black influx into urban areas, designating them as "white," and using pass laws to control black movement and residence.
• Regulations in the Native Urban Areas Act reinforced the socioeconomic dependency of black South Africans on white-controlled areas and jobs.
• JBM Hertzog's government (1924) further entrenched segregation to protect white economic interests, especially Afrikaners.
• The 1924 Industrial Conciliation Act legalized white-only trade unions.
• The 1925 Wages Act mandated preferential employment for whites.
• The 1926 Mines and Works Amendment Act reinforced the color bar in mining.
• The Great Depression heightened racial tensions and black migration into urban areas; white government responded by establishing the Native Economic Commission in 1932, recommending black people remain in rural reserves.
• The 1936 Native Trust and Land Act expanded areas reserved for black people; this further enforced strict territorial and economic segregation.

The National Party Victory in 1948

• The 1948 National Party victory led to the formal institution of apartheid, a policy of racial segregation and discrimination to maintain white supremacy.
• Apartheid expanded on segregation policies, now codified in law, including:
  • Residential segregation that forced black people into reserves/townships.
  • Segregated education and labor systems that ensured whites retained better jobs and educational opportunities.
  • Influx control via strict controls on black people entering urban areas and pass laws.
• Segregation was a broad colonial policy rooted in European superiority and a desire for separation from indigenous populations.
• Apartheid was a uniquely South African system that featured legal enforcement and complete political disenfranchisement of non-white South Africans.
• The 1948 National Party victory under DF Malan had profound implications for South Africa due to institutionalized racism; this created economic disparities for non-whites, international isolation, and resistance/struggle that culminated in the end of apartheid (1994).
• The 1948 victory by the National Party entrenched racial divisions legally and socially, creating a deeply polarized society.
• Economic policies favored whites and ensured economic disparities that disadvantaged nonwhites significantly.
• South Africa became increasingly isolated internationally due to its apartheid policies, leading to sanctions and global condemnation.
• Apartheid policies led to increased resistance from nonwhite South Africans and a long struggle for liberation that culminated in the end of apartheid in 1994.
• The Fagan Commission recommended against complete segregation and also for limited integration; hardline segregation proponents largely rejected this.
• The Sauer Commission recommended formalized segregation (apartheid), arguing it was necessary for white survival and proposing separate black people development; it would give them supposed "equal opportunities."
• The National Party's victory resulted from an alliance with the Afrikaner Party needed for a parliamentary majority.
• Electoral boundary manipulation disproportionately favored rural constituencies, where the National Party had more support.
• The National Party's victory was not due to a majority of the popular vote but rather electoral mechanisms and strategic alliances.

Legalizing Apartheid

• The 1949 Prohibition of Mixed Marriages Act banned marriages between whites and individuals from other races.
• Enforcing racial purity disrupted personal relationships and families.
• The Prohibition of Mixed Marriages Act socially engineered racial boundaries and enforced racial purity concepts.
• The 1950 Immorality Amendment Act criminalized sexual relations between whites and nonwhites.
• Although hard to enforce, the Act caused social discord and invasive policing.
• The 1950 Population Registration Act mandated racial classification and issuing of identity documents.
• This categorization had profound personal and social impact, dividing families when members were classified differently.
• The 1950 Group Areas Act segregated residential areas by race and forcibly relocated non-white South Africans.
• The Act created separate and unequal living conditions and was central to apartheid's physical landscape.
• The 1953 Reservation of Separate Amenities Act mandated racially separate public facilities.
• Facility quality for white South Africans was much higher than for nonwhites.
• The 1953 Bantu Education Act created a separate and inferior educational system for African students.
• System was designed to prepare them as laborers, reinforcing limited economic mobility and cycles of poverty.
• Apartheid laws institutionalized racial discrimination to maintain white supremacy in political power, economic opportunities, education, and social interactions.
• By legally enforcing racial segregation, apartheid laws created a deeply divided society where nonwhites were systematically marginalized; they were denied freedoms and basic rights.
• Apartheid laws facilitated economic inequalities by reserving the best jobs, areas, and educational opportunities for whites; blacks were relegated to poorer living conditions and menial tasks.
• Non-white South Africans were disenfranchised and excluded from the political process, so they had no voice in the governance of country.
• Cultural exchange/cultural growth were stifled by legally enforcing cultural separateness and promoting racial difference/superiority.
• Legal foundations spurred domestic resistance and civil rights movements, plus international sanctions, which led to the system's end; it imposed human rights abuses and lasting social/economic effects.
• Apartheid effectively institutionalized racial segregation and discrimination, embedding inequality into legal/societal structure.
• Apartheid laws were designed to maintain white supremacy in all spheres of life.

Overcoming Apartheid

• The 1949 Mixed Marriages Act banned marriages between whites and people of other races.
• Enforcement mechanisms intruded into private lives, which led to tensions.
• The Mixed Marriages Act enforced racial purity.
• The 1950 Immorality Amendment Act outlawed sexual relations between whites and nonwhites.
• The state surveilled relationships, policing moral choices and deepening prejudices.
• The 1950 Population Registration Act mandated racial categories in the population.
• Family separations occurred when members were classified into different racial groups, affecting their social privileges and rights.
• The 1953 Reservation of Separate Amenities Act mandated racially segregated public facilities.
• "Separate but unequal" facilities degraded nonwhites and limited service access.
• The 1950 Group Areas Act designated specific residential areas for different races.
• Mass evictions disrupted communities and livelihoods.
• The 1953 Bantu Education Act segregated educational systems and curtailed nonwhites' education.
• This limited future employment opportunities and perpetuated poverty.
• The 1959 Extension of University Education Act created separate universities for racial groups.
• This hindered academic freedom and entrenched segregation.
• The 1954 Native Resettlement Act and 1955 Native (Urban Areas) Amendment Act regulated black residency in urban areas.
• They broke apart families and communities, contributing to social instability and economic disadvantage.
• The Native Resettlement Act and Native (Urban Areas) Amendment Act required relocation to government-created townships.

Global Resistance to Racism and Oppression

• Mahatma Gandhi developed satyagraha (nonviolent resistance) in South Africa (1893-1914).
• Gandhi encouraged defying unjust laws by burning registration cards and also organized protest marches.
• Gandhi's methods influenced future resistance movements and led to the Natal Indian Congress.
• The Natal Indian Congress mobilized Indian South Africans against discriminatory policies.
• The South African Native National Congress (SANNC), or African National Congress (ANC), was founded in 1912 due to escalating injustices.
• Initially, the SANNC focused on diplomatic efforts, with peaceful protests against the 1913 Land Act.
• It used persuasion via delegations and petitions.
• The Workers' Party of South Africa called for democratic reforms, noncollaboration, and boycotts in the 1930s.
• The All African Convention (AAC) was formed in 1935 to discuss strategies for collective action against discriminatory policies.
• Dr. AB Xuma shifted the ANC to a more dynamic approach in the 1940s.
• The ANC Youth League (ANCYL), established in 1944, advocated for radical measures, revitalizing the ANC’s strategy.
• Protests became frequent, including the 1946 miners’ strike and the Alexandra bus boycotts.
• This post-WWII antiapartheid campaign led by the ANC involved a coalition of groups; it started in 1952.
• Participants deliberately violated apartheid laws to provoke arrest and draw attention to their cause.
• This campaign raised the ANC's political profile and laid the groundwork for future actions.

The Apartheid State’s Response to Resistance Against Apartheid

• In June 1952, the Defiance Campaign trial saw apartheid leaders (including Mandela and Sisulu) arrested, tried under the Suppression of Communism Act, and given suspended prison sentences/restrictions.
• Temporary act relaxation showed that adaptation was needed due to pressure/scrutiny.
• The Minister of Justice enacted the Public Safety Act and the Criminal Law Amendment Act in 1953; that response was due to continuous protests/defiance.
• The laws allowed the government to declare a state of emergency and impose severe penalties on protesters.
• Organized resistance movements had difficulty, and the state gained powers of arrest.
• The 1951 Bantu Authorities Act increased government control over rural areas, replacing uncooperative chiefs.
• Population saw imposed leaders as illegitimate; wide discontent existed.
• The 1959 Promotion of Bantu Self-Government Act created Bantustans, segregating groups to dilute African nationalism by fostering tribal identities.
• Urbanized blacks opposed the traditional leadership system in homelands, viewing it as apartheid control.
• The apartheid government used the 1955 Congress of the People and the Freedom Charter as grounds to arrest activists with anti-communist rhetoric in 1956.
• The lengthy Treason Trial weakened the resistance by removing leaders, but it backfired by drawing international attention; the financial/psychological toll/anxiety among white voters led to support for intensifying apartheid policies.

Impact of the Sharpeville Massacre

• The Sharpeville Massacre incited widespread outrage and increased protests as police killed 69 unarmed demonstrators.
• The government declared a state of emergency in 122 districts, detaining thousands.
• The ANC and PAC decided to form military wings, so nonviolent resistance shifted to armed struggle.
• The 1960 Unlawful Organizations Act banned the ANC and PAC, hampering their ability to organize.
• Sharpeville led to a national referendum among white voters, making South Africa a republic in 1961.
• South Africa then exited from the British Commonwealth due to international pressure over its racial policies
• UN Security Council Resolution 134 (April 1, 1960) condemned the massacre, increasing international scrutiny and criticism.
• Sharpeville accelerated South Africa's diplomatic isolation, affecting international relations/economics.
• The ANC formed Umkhonto we Sizwe (MK) and the PAC formed Poqo; these military wings initially focused on sabotage, unlike prior nonviolent strategies.
• Leaders, including Mandela, sought international support/training, beginning a proactive/global combat approach.
• Arrests of leaders like Mandela transformed them into international symbols of resistance.
• In the short term, the apartheid government strengthened policies to quell dissent and enforce laws.

The Rivonia Trial and its Consequences

• The Rivonia Trial began November 26, 1963, after a raid on Umkhonto we Sizwe (MK) at Liliesleaf Farm north of Johannesburg; it concluded on June 12, 1964.
• Ten ANC leaders were charged with sabotage to overthrow the apartheid government; leaders included Mandela, Mbeki, and Sisulu.
• The defendants pleaded not guilty, documents implicated them in plans for guerrilla warfare.
• Eight of the accused were sentenced to life imprisonment on Robben Island; Mandela's harsh sentences drew international condemnation, but the accused became global symbols of resistance against apartheid.
• The trial led to disorganization within the ANC's ranks; Oliver Tambo fled to coordinate international solidarity.
• The ANC internally/externally rebuilt its strategies; new underground networks were built within South Africa, and armed struggle was intensified through MK.
• The imprisonment catalyzed a global campaign against apartheid, increasing international pressure.
• The trial coincided with an economic boom strengthening the National Party (NP); they proceeded with separate homelands creation and black relocation.
• The Trial became a symbol in South Africa and amplified international awareness and mobilization, increasing diplomatic isolation; it shifted from nonviolent protest to armed struggle.
• Nelson Mandela’s speech during the trial became a defining moment in the fight against apartheid.

Apartheid Becomes an International Word

• Apartheid became internationally recognized due to stringent racial policies and global reaction.
• The term became popular after the National Party's (NP) 1948 electoral victory with institutionalized racial segregation; previously, policies were present, but less rigid.
• South Africa's apartheid was codified in law; it involved racial classification, separate residential areas, educational systems, and healthcare, unlike other segregation.
• Apartheid came as the world recognized human rights, due to WWII atrocities; the UN's 1948 UNDHR underscored the rights that apartheid denied.
• As nations decolonized, apartheid stood out as legally entrenched racial discrimination.
• The 1960 Sharpeville Massacre shifted global public opinion against the South African government.
• South Africa became the "polecat of the world" due to its racial policies.
• The international community condemned South Africa, called for sanctions, and formed the UN Special Committee Against Apartheid.
• International sports and cultural organizations excluded South Africa; there were academic, economic, and military sanctions.
• The Anti-Apartheid Movement played a crucial role in lobbying international action, mobilizing across countries and influencing government policies.
• Over time, trade embargoes and economic sanctions further isolated South Africa.