Quick Hints in Embryology (FCPS 1)

A type of cell adhesion molecule responsible for cell-to-cell interactions, especially in epithelial tissues.

An organelle responsible for detoxification of harmful substances like drugs and alcohol.

An organelle found in eukaryotic cells that break down waste products and cellular debris.

An increase in the size of a cell or organ, often due to an increase in the number of cellular components.

An increase in the number of cells in a tissue or organ.

The stage in the cell cycle where the cell grows and copies its DNA before dividing.

A dense, inactive X chromosome found in the nuclei of female mammals.

The shortest pre-erythrocytic phase in the Plasmodium life cycle, characterized by a rapid development of the parasite within the liver.

The longest pre-erythrocytic phase in the Plasmodium life cycle, highlighting a slower development within the liver.

The type of anemia associated with malarial infection, characterized by normal red blood cell size and color.

The dormant stage of the Plasmodium parasite, present in the liver, which can cause relapses of malaria infection even after treatment.

The form of the Plasmodium parasite that enters the human body through the bite of an infected mosquito.

The stage of the Plasmodium parasite that multiplies in the liver after the sporozoite enters the body.

The main vein that accompanies the Left Anterior Descending Artery.

The middle cardiac vein runs alongside the Posterior Interventricular Artery.

The small cardiac vein travels alongside the Marginal Artery.

The Anterior Cardiac Vein directly drains into the Right Atrium.

This is a primary vein that drains the heart.

Pain originating from the heart itself is transmitted via the sympathetic nerves.

Pain associated with inflammation of the pericardium is carried by the Phrenic nerve.

The fibrous pericardium and the parietal layer of the serous pericardium are both innervated by the Phrenic nerve.

The Visceral layer of the serous pericardium is known as the Epicardium.

The Right Atrium forms the right border of the heart.

The Left Ventricle and its Apex Beat form the left border of the heart.

The Right Ventricle forms the anterior surface of the heart.

The Left Ventricle primarily forms the inferior surface of the heart.

The coronary arteries supply the Epicardium.

The Pericardiophrenic artery supplies the Pericardium.

A drug used for the treatment of severe and resistant Clostridium difficile infections.

The drug of choice for traveler's diarrhea, providing a more effective treatment option compared to Metronidazole.

Beta Blockers are the first-line treatment for Atrial Fibrillation, helping control the heart rhythm.

Beta Blockers and Digoxin are used for rate control in Atrial Fibrillation, regulating the heart's rhythm.

Flecainide is used for rhythm control in Atrial Fibrillation for patients without coronary artery disease.

Amiodarone is considered the preferred drug for rhythm control in Atrial Fibrillation patients with coronary artery disease.

Dopamine and Dobutamine are the primary drugs used to treat cardiogenic shock by supporting the heart's function.

Dopamine is the preferred medication for hypotension with unrecordable blood pressure, effectively raising blood pressure and increasing blood flow.

Adrenaline (epinephrine) is the first-line treatment for anaphylactic shock, quickly reversing the severe allergic reaction.

Ceftazidime is the primary treatment for Pseudomonas infections, effectively tackling this challenging bacterial infection.

Ciprofloxacin is the preferred medication for UTIs caused by Pseudomonas, effectively treating this common urinary tract infection.

ATP is the energy currency of the cell, providing immediate energy for various cellular processes. It is composed of Adenosine, a sugar molecule Ribose, and three phosphate groups.

Starch is a complex carbohydrate composed of long chains of glucose molecules. It is a major source of energy for plants and animals.

Sunflower seeds contain a high percentage of unsaturated fatty acids, particularly linoleic acid (omega-6 fatty acids), which are beneficial for heart health.

Soybean oil is rich in both polyunsaturated and monounsaturated fatty acids, including linoleic acid (omega-6) and oleic acid (omega-9), which are essential for overall health.

During the initial stages of fasting (up to 48 hours), the body primarily utilizes stored glucose for energy. This stored glucose is primarily derived from glycogen, which is stored in the liver and muscles.

After the initial 48 hours of fasting, the body starts breaking down stored fat (triglycerides) into fatty acids to use as an energy source. This process is called lipolysis and is crucial for prolonged fasting.

If fasting continues beyond 72 hours, the body begins breaking down muscle protein into amino acids. This provides a source of energy but comes with a significant net loss of muscle mass. This is why extended fasting requires careful monitoring.

The peripheral zone is the largest region of the prostate gland. It is most likely to be affected by prostate cancer (CA) and holds the highest risk of malignant changes.

Prostate cancer often metastasizes (spreads) to the vertebrae and brain, primarily through the anterior intervertebral venous plexus, a network of veins located in the front of the spinal column.

The median lobe of the prostate gland is mainly involved in Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia (BPH), a condition where the prostate enlarges non-cancerously, leading to urinary issues.

Hepatitis A and E are transmitted through the fecal-oral route, mainly through contaminated food or water. They are considered naked viruses, meaning they lack a protective outer envelope.

Hepatitis D, commonly known as the delta virus, is the most lethal form of hepatitis. It requires the presence of Hepatitis B to replicate and can cause severe liver damage leading to cirrhosis and liver failure.

Hepatitis E is most commonly seen in pregnant women, especially in remote areas, and can have serious consequences, including liver failure and death.

Cytomegalovirus (CMV) is a common virus that can cause serious infections in people with weakened immune systems. It is the most lethal after blood transfusions or organ transplants.

Hemoglobin synthesis starts in the earliest stage of red blood cell development, called the proerythroblast or early normoblast. At this stage, the cell is actively producing the components for hemoglobin.

The hemoglobin molecule first appears in the intermediate normoblast stage of red blood cell development. This stage marks the start of hemoglobin accumulation within the red blood cell.

Vitamin C is required for the hydroxylation of proline and lysine residues, which are essential for the formation of collagen, a key component of strong connective tissue. Collagen provides structural support for wounds and promotes healing.

Infection is a local factor that can significantly delay wound healing. Bacteria present in the wound consume nutrients and oxygen needed for healing, produce toxins, and trigger inflammation, all of which hinder tissue repair.

Anemia, a deficiency in red blood cells, can slow down wound healing because it reduces the oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood. This limits the oxygen available for tissue repair, hindering the process.

Old age is associated with age-related changes in hormone levels and the function of the endocrine system. These changes can affect collagen production, immune function, and the body's overall ability to repair tissues, making wound healing slower.

Factor V Leiden mutation is a common inherited disorder that causes hypercoagulability, increasing the risk of blood clots (thrombosis). The mutation creates a Factor V protein that is resistant to inactivation, leading to excessive clotting.

Factor V deficiency is a rare inherited bleeding disorder that makes the blood less able to clot properly, leading to increased bleeding. It occurs due to a reduced amount of Factor V, which is an essential component of the clotting cascade.

Factor XII deficiency, a rare inherited bleeding disorder, results in a prolonged clotting time. However, it's not associated with increased bleeding because it's involved in the intrinsic clotting pathway, which is activated later in the process.

Antiphospholipid syndrome is the most common acquired thrombotic disorder. It's an autoimmune condition where the body produces antibodies against phospholipids, which are involved in clotting. These antibodies cause excessive clotting in the blood.

Von Willebrand disease (VWD) is the most common inherited bleeding disorder. VWD affects the von Willebrand factor, a protein that helps platelets stick together and forms a plug to stop bleeding.

Heparin is a natural anticoagulant and antithrombotic agent. It works by enhancing the activity of antithrombin III, a protein that inhibits several clotting factors, primarily factor Xa. This prevents the formation of blood clots.

Plasmin is a natural thrombolytic enzyme responsible for dissolving blood clots. It's activated from a precursor called plasminogen. Plasmin breaks down fibrin, the protein that forms the meshwork of blood clots.

The extrinsic and intrinsic pathways of coagulation converge on Stuart factor (Factor X). Factor X is activated by both pathways and plays a crucial role in the final steps leading to fibrin formation, creating the meshwork of a blood clot.

Factor VIII is mostly synthesized in endothelial cells, though a small portion is also made in the liver.

Factor VIII, a clotting factor crucial for the intrinsic pathway, is not completely synthesized in the liver. While the liver produces some Factor VIII, its primary source is endothelial cells.

The extrinsic pathway of coagulation is initiated by the release of tissue factor (also known as thromboplastin) from damaged tissue cells.

The intrinsic pathway of coagulation is activated by contact with negatively charged surfaces, such as collagen exposed in damaged blood vessels. This activation involves Factor XII, which triggers a cascade of reactions leading to thrombin production.