Public Transportation vs Personal Vehicles

Public transportation is often more fuel-efficient than individual car travel, making it a more environmentally friendly option.

The design of cities with car use in mind can create traffic congestion and lead to a reliance on private vehicles.

Spreading out homes and businesses creates longer commutes and increased reliance on cars, contributing to congestion.

Public transportation faces challenges like terrain, limited coverage, and high infrastructure costs, making it less efficient in some areas.

Public transportation can be less convenient and flexible compared to owning a car, leading to a preference for private vehicles.

Lower population density leads to fewer people using public transportation, making it less efficient and potentially less appealing.

The high cost of building public transportation infrastructure makes it difficult to invest in efficient systems in the US.

Car-centric cultures prioritize driving in the US, making it harder to promote alternative modes of transport.

Increase in traffic congestion due to more cars on the road.

Negative impact of traffic congestion and air pollution on public health.

A process where lower-income neighborhoods become higher-income neighborhoods due to rising property values and rents.

A change in the mix of residents within a neighborhood over time, without necessarily displacing existing residents.

When existing residents are forced out of their homes due to rising costs or pressure from newcomers.

Higher-income newcomers benefiting from increased property values and improved amenities.

Long-term residents who may be priced out or face higher costs of living.

The practice of using restrictive housing policies to limit where people of color could live.

Real estate agents intentionally guiding clients to specific neighborhoods based on race, often steering black people to less desirable areas.

The migration of white people from cities to suburbs often fueled by the arrival of black residents.

Formal agreements that prevented people of color from buying or renting homes in certain neighborhoods.

A landmark Supreme Court case that ruled racial covenants unconstitutional under the 14th Amendment's Equal Protection Clause.

The systematic separation of people based on race, often through discriminatory policies and practices.

Informal methods of segregation, such as violence, discrimination by Realtors, and social pressures, which were used to enforce racial separation.

Formal methods of segregation, such as racial zoning and racial covenants.

A practice where realtors and insurance companies systematically deny services or charge higher rates in certain neighborhoods based on race or ethnicity.

The Fair Housing Act of 1968 outlawed discriminatory housing practices based on race, religion, national origin, and other factors. However, redlining practices persisted, often through less explicit means.

A shift from explicit legal segregation to more subtle forms of discrimination, such as economic zoning, unequal access to resources, and steering by real estate agents.

The intentional guidance of homebuyers towards or away from certain neighborhoods based on their race or ethnicity, often by real estate agents.

The Becker model analyzes criminal decision-making by weighing the potential rewards of committing a crime against the risks of getting caught and punished.

Features that encourage criminal activity by providing opportunities for crime, such as bars, train stations, or vacant lots.

Features that attract individuals with criminal intent, such as drug scenes, areas with high crime rates, or bars that stay open late.

Factors that discourage criminal activity, such as increased police presence, well-lit streets, and thriving businesses.

The concentration of crime in specific areas, often linked to socioeconomic disparities and lack of resources.

The idea that crime occurs when motivated offenders, suitable targets, and a lack of capable guardians converge in time and space.

Areas with more commercial activity, like stores and restaurants, tend to have less crime due to increased visibility and activity.

Areas with more crime generators (attracting potential offenders) and crime attractors (attracting suitable targets) experience higher crime rates.

A model that explains how differences in productivity and amenities between cities affect wage and price levels.

The graph in the Roback model illustrates how higher productivity and amenities in a city lead to higher wages and prices in equilibrium.

Cities with higher productivity, attracting skilled workers and pushing up wages and prices.

The Roback model highlights how differences in productivity and amenities across cities lead to variations in wage and price combinations.

Criminal behavior is not always driven by rational calculations of costs and benefits. People make decisions influenced by emotions, impulsiveness, and other factors.

The Becker Model fails to consider social factors that can drive crime. It ignores issues like poverty, inequality, and discrimination, which play a major role in criminal behavior.

Even if we know the probability of getting caught, it's hard to determine the actual cost of crime. Factors like legal fees and the value of freedom are difficult to quantify.

Crime rates have been generally decreasing since the 1990s across US cities. This trend is more pronounced for violent crimes like homicide and robbery.

Effective policing, increased security measures, and lead abatement have likely contributed to the crime decline. Public investment in safety and technology plays a role.

Mass incarceration, while significant, has a complex impact on crime. Its effect on crime rates is not entirely clear-cut.

Factors like labor markets, gun control, and immigration have had limited influence on recent crime trends.

Routine activities theory suggests that crime occurs when there's a motivated offender, a suitable target, and a lack of capable guardianship. Neighborhoods with high concentrations of disadvantaged areas tend to experience more crime.