Psychology: Personality and Research Methods

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Questions and Answers

What is indicated by the term 'functional equivalence' in relation to personality?

Different personalities behave differently in various contexts. (correct)

Similar personalities react the same way to all situations.

All personalities are influenced equally by environmental factors.

Personality traits are unchangeable over time.

Which of the following best describes an 'anxious ambivalent' personality?

An individual who is calm and avoids conflict.

A person who displays extreme apathy towards others.

A passionate individual who tends to experience jealousy. (correct)

An individual with very low self-esteem and no emotional responses.

What role do defense mechanisms play in personality development?

They are the various ways the ego copes between the id and superego. (correct)

They promote the direct expression of aggressive feelings.

They hinder the growth of the personality structure.

They eliminate all forms of internal conflict.

Which of the following statements about personality is NOT true?

Personality traits are exclusive and cannot overlap. Signup and view all the answers

How do individuals with a strong personality typically respond to conflicts?

They utilize defense mechanisms to manage their emotions. Signup and view all the answers

Which aspect of personality is primarily concerned with emotional responses?

Affective traits. Signup and view all the answers

What may be a potential outcome for individuals with intense jealousy as part of their personality?

Strain in relationships due to insecurity. Signup and view all the answers

Which factor is least likely to influence personality development?

Random genetic mutations. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a common characteristic of defense mechanisms?

They can distort reality to reduce anxiety. Signup and view all the answers

In personality theory, which term describes the part of the mind that represents moral standards?

The superego. Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary goal of descriptive research?

To describe what is typical by measuring one variable at a time Signup and view all the answers

Which step comes after formulating a research question in the theory-data cycle?

Research design Signup and view all the answers

What is the purpose of factor analysis in research?

To identify underlying patterns among variables Signup and view all the answers

What is internal validity primarily concerned with in a study?

Accuracy of conclusions drawn Signup and view all the answers

Which type of research involves manipulating one variable to understand its effect on another?

Experimental research Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a step in the theory-data cycle?

Data analysis Signup and view all the answers

What must be correlated for variables to imply a possible causal relationship?

Temporal precedence Signup and view all the answers

Which principle of ethics aims to ensure fairness in research sampling?

Justice Signup and view all the answers

What is involved in pre-registering a study?

Outlining the study design and hypotheses prior to data collection Signup and view all the answers

What characterizes inferential statistics in research?

Making predictions or generalizations about a population Signup and view all the answers

What is the difference between structuralism and functionalism in psychological theories?

Structuralism seeks to break down mental processes into basic components, while functionalism looks at their purpose. Signup and view all the answers

What is one approach to dealing with dissonance?

Change behavior Signup and view all the answers

What does the term 'validity' refer to in research?

The degree to which research measures what it intends to measure Signup and view all the answers

When discussing correlational research, what does it mean if two variables are found to be correlated?

There may be a relationship but causation cannot be established Signup and view all the answers

Which factor contributes to our view of others according to the list provided?

Stereotypes Signup and view all the answers

What does research validity primarily ensure concerning the conclusions drawn?

Accuracy in interpreting the results Signup and view all the answers

Which option is NOT a characteristic of how individuals deal with situations?

Physical appearance Signup and view all the answers

What is one way to justify behavior in the context of dissonance?

Reframe behavior Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following concepts is associated with masculinity agency?

Personality Signup and view all the answers

What does reducing perceived control help with?

Understanding dissonance Signup and view all the answers

Which factor is categorized alongside norms in shaping preferences?

Opinions Signup and view all the answers

In dealing with situations, what is the scope of behavioral motivations?

To promote avoidance Signup and view all the answers

What option represents a misconception about dealing with dissonance?

Ignoring feelings Signup and view all the answers

What element is often overlooked in discussing masculinity agency?

Emotional expression Signup and view all the answers

What role do stereotypes play in shaping views of others?

They create oversimplified perceptions Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a limiting factor in how we view others?

Residual concepts Signup and view all the answers

Which aspect is NOT included in the cognitive beliefs about situations?

Affective feelings Signup and view all the answers

What might individuals do when experiencing cognitive dissonance?

Seek to reconcile conflicting beliefs Signup and view all the answers

What does self-efficacy imply about a person's actions?

They believe they will succeed in achieving a goal. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes the chameleon effect?

Mimicking others to fit in and understand them better. Signup and view all the answers

Which classification of personality focuses on enduring characteristics?

Traits Signup and view all the answers

What type of personality is characterized by temporary emotional conditions?

States Signup and view all the answers

What does affective forecasting refer to?

The tendency to predict emotional outcomes inaccurately. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following influences whether a behavior is reinforced or not?

Cultural context Signup and view all the answers

In personality psychology, what represents evaluative judgments?

Subjective assessments of self or others Signup and view all the answers

What is a significant factor in why self-justification occurs?

Reducing cognitive dissonance Signup and view all the answers

Which statement accurately defines a trait in personality psychology?

It signifies a long-lasting characteristic of an individual. Signup and view all the answers

Which factor does not typically influence self-efficacy?

Physical appearance Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a key component of traits according to Allport?

Stable personality characteristics Signup and view all the answers

How does culture affect personality traits?

It can dictate which traits are considered desirable. Signup and view all the answers

Self-justification is primarily linked to which psychological phenomenon?

Cognitive dissonance Signup and view all the answers

What role do states play in understanding personality?

They provide insight into emotions affecting behavior at a given time. Signup and view all the answers

What is a key factor in forming impressions according to social learning theory?

Children learn by watching and imitating adults. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following describes the impact of social identity theory?

It promotes more positive attitudes towards ingroups. Signup and view all the answers

In the context of implicit attitudes, which statement is accurate?

They are unconscious and learned through exposure. Signup and view all the answers

What does the diffusion of responsibility refer to?

A decreased likelihood of individual action in a group. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes the motivation underlying positive group perceptions?

The need to perceive oneself and the group positively. Signup and view all the answers

What do negative intergroup attitudes commonly develop from?

Competition between groups against each other. Signup and view all the answers

What role does punishment of adult behavior play in children's learning?

It discourages children from replicating the behavior. Signup and view all the answers

How do core motivations influence attitudes and actions?

They are both implicit and explicit in their effects. Signup and view all the answers

What does realistic conflict theory assert?

Groups become competitive over scarce resources. Signup and view all the answers

Which type of behavior is most likely to be imitated by children according to social learning theory?

Behaviors that are rewarded or not punished. Signup and view all the answers

What is the basis of forming positive social identities?

Perceiving one's ingroup in a positive light. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes explicit attitudes?

They are conscious and identifiable by the individual. Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of social observation in learning?

It enhances cognitive and behavioral learning. Signup and view all the answers

How can the term 'group thinking' be understood in this context?

A reduction of critical analysis within a group. Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

Personality

Personality is comprised of patterns of thoughts and behaviors that make up a person.
Functional equivalence refers to how different personalities act in different situations.

Defense Mechanisms

Defense mechanisms are various ways the ego copes between the Id and the Superego.

Anxious-Ambivalent Attachment

Anxious-ambivalent attachment displays a passionate but prone to jealousy personality.

Theory-Data Cycle

The theory-data cycle uses steps to gain relevant insights from data.
The steps are:
- Theory
- Research question
- Research design
- Preregistration
- Data
The cycle is iterative with the possibility to return and modify any of the steps.

Validity

Internal validity is the ability to conclude that the independent variable caused the change in the dependent variable and that no other factor explains the results.
External validity refers to the generalizability of the results to other situations and populations.

Research Methods

Descriptive research aims to describe a typical situation by measuring one variable at a time.
Experimental research aims to prove a causal claim by manipulating one variable and understanding the relationship with a second variable.

Scientific Method

The scientific method is a process of basing a belief on evidence.

Ethical Principles

The ethical principles of research aim to minimize harm and ensure fairness to participants.
Justice - research should not be conducted disproportionately on a particular group.

Functionalism

Functionalism studies how mental processes enable people to adapt, survive and thrive.
Functionalism is based on the idea of how the mind works and the purpose of its functions.

Structuralism

Structuralism attempts to understand the basic elements of consciousness.
The goal of structuralism is to break down mental processes to their most fundamental components.

Forming Impressions

Trustworthiness is a key factor in forming impressions.
Competence Level also plays a role in impression formation.

Kids learn by watching adults.
Adults' actions are imitated by children, particularly when there are no negative consequences.
Behaviors, dispositions, and cognitions are influenced by observing and imitating others.

People develop more positive attitudes towards their own groups (in-groups).
This phenomenon leads to the development of negative attitudes towards other groups (out-groups).

Realistic Conflict Theory

Negative intergroup attitudes develop when groups compete against each other.
Competition for scarce resources can cause antagonism and conflict.

Diffusion of Responsibility

Less responsibility is felt for actions when there are more people in the group.

Attitudes and Motivations

Implicit Attitudes are unconscious and learned through exposure.
Explicit Attitudes are conscious and formed through direct experience and reflection.
Value of Membership is a determining factor in an individual's understanding of a group.

Dealing with Situations

Individuals evaluate a situation based on feelings, beliefs, and motivations.
The cognitive component includes beliefs and characteristics of the situation.
The Behavioral component includes motivations to approach or avoid the situation.

Dealing with Dissonance

Dissonance arises when an individual's attitude, behaviour, and cognition are inconsistent.
We attempt to resolve dissonance by changing our attitude, changing our behaviour, or justifying the inconsistency.

Factors Shaping Our Views of Others

Personality: Individual traits and characteristics influence our perceptions.
Error: Biases and mistakes in judgment can shape our opinions.
Residual Determinism: Past events and experiences can influence how we see others.
Stereotypes: Preconceived notions and generalizations about groups can affect our views.
Opinion: Personal beliefs and values can impact our perceptions.
Norms: Social expectations and rules can influence our judgments.

Reciprocal Determinism

Our choices lead to preferences, and preferences lead to choices that influence our world.

Combines social psychology and cognitive psychology.
Focuses on how people think about the social world.
Influences on perception, memory, and judgment in social settings.

Personality & Traits

There are three classes of personality: Traits, States, and Evaluative Judgements.
Traits can be seen as physical characteristics or taken actions.
States are essentially moods.
Evaluative Judgements are self assessments or opinions on personality.

Personality Styles

There are different personality styles that are determined by a set of particular traits.
The Chameleon Affect describes the tendency to mimic or copy someone's behavior and mannerisms to fit in and understand others better.
Self-efficacy is a concept that suggests one will act if they believe they will achieve a desired outcome.
Affective Forecasting is the inability to predict future emotional experiences.
Affective Forecasting errors can occur because of biased thinking or self-deception.
Self-justification helps people to maintain a positive self-image and reduce cognitive dissonance.

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Description

Explore the intriguing concepts of personality, defense mechanisms, and attachment styles in this quiz. Dive into the theory-data cycle and understand the nuances of internal and external validity. Challenge your understanding of these psychological principles.