Psychology: Personality and Research Methods

Personality

• Personality is comprised of patterns of thoughts and behaviors that make up a person.
• Functional equivalence refers to how different personalities act in different situations.

Defense Mechanisms

• Defense mechanisms are various ways the ego copes between the Id and the Superego.

Anxious-Ambivalent Attachment

• Anxious-ambivalent attachment displays a passionate but prone to jealousy personality.

Theory-Data Cycle

• The theory-data cycle uses steps to gain relevant insights from data.
• The steps are:
  • Theory
  • Research question
  • Research design
  • Preregistration
  • Data
• The cycle is iterative with the possibility to return and modify any of the steps.

Validity

• Internal validity is the ability to conclude that the independent variable caused the change in the dependent variable and that no other factor explains the results.
• External validity refers to the generalizability of the results to other situations and populations.

Research Methods

• Descriptive research aims to describe a typical situation by measuring one variable at a time.
• Experimental research aims to prove a causal claim by manipulating one variable and understanding the relationship with a second variable.

Scientific Method

• The scientific method is a process of basing a belief on evidence.

Ethical Principles

• The ethical principles of research aim to minimize harm and ensure fairness to participants.
• Justice - research should not be conducted disproportionately on a particular group.

Functionalism

• Functionalism studies how mental processes enable people to adapt, survive and thrive.
• Functionalism is based on the idea of how the mind works and the purpose of its functions.

Structuralism

• Structuralism attempts to understand the basic elements of consciousness.
• The goal of structuralism is to break down mental processes to their most fundamental components.

Forming Impressions

• Trustworthiness is a key factor in forming impressions.
• Competence Level also plays a role in impression formation.

Social Learning Theory

• Kids learn by watching adults.
• Adults' actions are imitated by children, particularly when there are no negative consequences.
• Behaviors, dispositions, and cognitions are influenced by observing and imitating others.

Social Identity Theory

• People develop more positive attitudes towards their own groups (in-groups).
• This phenomenon leads to the development of negative attitudes towards other groups (out-groups).

Realistic Conflict Theory

• Negative intergroup attitudes develop when groups compete against each other.
• Competition for scarce resources can cause antagonism and conflict.

Diffusion of Responsibility

• Less responsibility is felt for actions when there are more people in the group.

Attitudes and Motivations

• Implicit Attitudes are unconscious and learned through exposure.
• Explicit Attitudes are conscious and formed through direct experience and reflection.
• Value of Membership is a determining factor in an individual's understanding of a group.

Dealing with Situations

• Individuals evaluate a situation based on feelings, beliefs, and motivations.
• The cognitive component includes beliefs and characteristics of the situation.
• The Behavioral component includes motivations to approach or avoid the situation.

Dealing with Dissonance

• Dissonance arises when an individual's attitude, behaviour, and cognition are inconsistent.
• We attempt to resolve dissonance by changing our attitude, changing our behaviour, or justifying the inconsistency.

Factors Shaping Our Views of Others

• Personality: Individual traits and characteristics influence our perceptions.
• Error: Biases and mistakes in judgment can shape our opinions.
• Residual Determinism: Past events and experiences can influence how we see others.
• Stereotypes: Preconceived notions and generalizations about groups can affect our views.
• Opinion: Personal beliefs and values can impact our perceptions.
• Norms: Social expectations and rules can influence our judgments.

Reciprocal Determinism

• Our choices lead to preferences, and preferences lead to choices that influence our world.

Social Cognition

• Combines social psychology and cognitive psychology.
• Focuses on how people think about the social world.
• Influences on perception, memory, and judgment in social settings.

Personality & Traits

• There are three classes of personality: Traits, States, and Evaluative Judgements.
• Traits can be seen as physical characteristics or taken actions.
• States are essentially moods.
• Evaluative Judgements are self assessments or opinions on personality.

Personality Styles

• There are different personality styles that are determined by a set of particular traits.
• The Chameleon Affect describes the tendency to mimic or copy someone's behavior and mannerisms to fit in and understand others better.
• Self-efficacy is a concept that suggests one will act if they believe they will achieve a desired outcome.
• Affective Forecasting is the inability to predict future emotional experiences.
• Affective Forecasting errors can occur because of biased thinking or self-deception.
• Self-justification helps people to maintain a positive self-image and reduce cognitive dissonance.