Psychology of Learning and Memory

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Questions and Answers

What is the primary reason for separating study and test sessions?

Testing does not affect memory retention.

Studying and testing at the same time enhances learning.

Testing improves memory through recall. (correct)

Separation of study and test sessions is not essential.

Which type of motivation is most closely associated with curiosity?

Extrinsic motivation

Internal motivation (correct)

Operational motivation

Passive motivation

Which type of memory is characterized by mental time travel to specific events?

Procedural memory

Episodic memory (correct)

Iconic memory

Semantic memory

What effect does curiosity have on memory encoding?

It enhances encoding of both the curiosity-triggering item and incidentally presented stimuli. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes semantic memory?

Retention of world knowledge and facts. Signup and view all the answers

Which area of the brain is critically involved in motivation and learning?

Hippocampus Signup and view all the answers

In what way does internal motivation improve learning efficiency?

By increasing the use of elaborate memorization techniques. Signup and view all the answers

Which example best illustrates episodic memory?

Remembering a birthday party from last year. Signup and view all the answers

What type of judgments led to better performance in the rhyming recognition test?

Phonological judgments Signup and view all the answers

Which type of rehearsal is more effective for long-term learning?

Elaborative rehearsal Signup and view all the answers

How does organizing words impact recall according to Bower et al. (1969)?

It significantly improves recall. Signup and view all the answers

What was the main conclusion of Mandler's (1967) study regarding intention to learn?

The level of processing is more important than intention. Signup and view all the answers

What does deeper processing of information lead to, according to Craik & Tulving (1975)?

Improved long-term retention. Signup and view all the answers

What type of items tend to be chunked together for easier recall?

Items linked by common association. Signup and view all the answers

What was the effect of presenting words in a logical hierarchical structure on memory recall?

It improves recall because of organization. Signup and view all the answers

Which statement best summarizes the relationship between level/type of processing and memory retention?

Efficient retention is tied to processing depth and organization. Signup and view all the answers

What is the lag effect in relation to repeated study?

The benefit of repeated study increases as the lag between study occasions increases. Signup and view all the answers

Which training schedule led to the best learning outcomes in Baddeley and Longman's study?

Spaced training with regular breaks. Signup and view all the answers

What did Karpicke and Roediger (2008) demonstrate about the testing effect?

Testing enhances memory retention through retrieval. Signup and view all the answers

What can happen when errors are made during recall training without feedback?

Erroneous retrieval may be reinforced without corrective feedback. Signup and view all the answers

In Karpicke & Blunt's experiment, which method contributed to the best recall a week later?

Immediate recall testing after studying the text. Signup and view all the answers

What misconception did students have regarding retrieval practice?

They considered it to be the least effective method of study. Signup and view all the answers

According to Landauer & Bjork, what distinguishes spaced practice from massed practice?

Spaced practice enhances memory compared to massed practice. Signup and view all the answers

What was an outcome of the spaced presentation in Kornell and Bjork's research?

Spaced presentations resulted in better identification of new artworks. Signup and view all the answers

What does the hierarchical model suggest about the organization of concepts in semantic memory?

Concepts are organized hierarchically with nodes and features. Signup and view all the answers

How does the spreading activation model differ from the hierarchical model?

It emphasizes semantic relatedness and distance rather than hierarchy. Signup and view all the answers

What role do retrieval cues play in the memory retrieval process?

They assist in locating the target memory by guiding the search. Signup and view all the answers

What is defined as 'pattern completion' in the context of memory retrieval?

The reinstatement of memory features through spreading activation from cues. Signup and view all the answers

Which factor can significantly impair the retrieval process according to the content?

Reduced attention to retrieval cues. Signup and view all the answers

What characterizes the activation level of a memory item?

It reflects the internal state indicating how accessible the memory is. Signup and view all the answers

What is a key characteristic of spreading activation?

It automatically transmits energy to related concepts based on associations. Signup and view all the answers

According to Barsalou’s theories, what influences the processing of concepts?

The contextual factors in which the concepts are encountered. Signup and view all the answers

What is proactive interference?

A memory that happened prior to another memory. Signup and view all the answers

In Baddeley & Hitch's 1977 study, what was concluded about forgetting?

Forgetting is more related to interference from intervening items. Signup and view all the answers

Which factor is a significant influence on proactive interference?

The number of previous learning experiences encountered. Signup and view all the answers

What is a key characteristic of part-set cuing impairment?

Cues from the same category can impair memory retrieval. Signup and view all the answers

What does retrieval-induced forgetting (RIF) primarily affect?

The recall of information related to practiced items. Signup and view all the answers

What is the main effect observed when subjects are interrogated about stolen items from a crime scene?

Memory for related items is impaired Signup and view all the answers

Which statement about retroactive interference is correct?

It can make the first memory less accessible. Signup and view all the answers

What does RIF stand for in the context of memory retrieval?

Retrieval Induced Forgetting Signup and view all the answers

How does the number of retrieval cues affect memory recall?

Increasing cues from the same set increases recall impairment. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a mechanism of interference that may lead to forgetting?

Associative Blocking Signup and view all the answers

What is a consequence of extensive training on a new list in the context of retroactive interference?

It can lead to increased impairment of the first list memory. Signup and view all the answers

How can forgetting be viewed in relation to functional behavior?

As serving a goal-directed purpose Signup and view all the answers

What is one implication of selective strengthening in memory retrieval?

It may diminish retention of related but unpracticed memories Signup and view all the answers

What does the term 'cue overload' refer to?

Cues that create too many competing memories Signup and view all the answers

Why might forgetting be considered beneficial in memory processes?

It promotes flexible behavior and decision-making Signup and view all the answers

Which example illustrates the concept of 'Tip-of-the-Tongue' phenomenon?

Continuously coming up with incorrect responses instead of the target Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

Ebbinghaus

Scientific study of learning and memory.
Tested one participant (himself).
Used nonsense syllables.
Explored the rate of learning and forgetting.
Found a linear relationship between learning and time spent studying.

Rate of Learning: The Total Time Hypothesis

The amount learned is a function of the time spent learning.
Experiment: List of 16 syllables learned daily, then relearned after 24 hours.
Result: Learning linearly related to study time. "Practice makes perfect."

Expertise and Brain Plasticity

Compared brain volume in taxi drivers to healthy controls.
Taxi drivers' posterior hippocampus was consistently larger.
Hippocampus size significantly correlated with time spent as a taxi driver.

New Learning and Brain Plasticity

Experiment: Medical students scanned brains before, during, and after intensive exams.
Results: Increased grey matter volume in parietal cortex and posterior hippocampus, which remained even three months later.
Practice drives structural plasticity but isn't perpetual.
Brain renormalizes volume in practiced regions.

Repetition

Simple repetition without organization may not lead to learning, especially with complex information.
Distributed practice (spacing learning trials) is faster and less forgetful.

Melton (1970): Spaced Learning of Word Stimuli Increases Subsequent Recall

Experiment with word lists - some repeated after varying lags.
Varying durations for presenting words.
Results: Memory benefits despite same total study time – spacing was the key factor.

Baddeley and Longman (1978): Rate of Learning Typing

Explored learning typing skills under different training schedules.

Kornell and Bjork (2008): Spacing and Participants' View

Spaced presentation of artwork led to better identification of new paintings.
Participants preferred spaced presentation over massed (dense) learning.

Karpicke and Roediger (2008): The Testing Effect/Generation Effect

Designed a study with four groups learning Swahili-English word pairs.
The groups differed in how they were tested.
The presence of tests had a substantial impact on what was remembered.
Having to retrieve information, rather than being given it, led to greater retention

Karpicke & Blunt (2011)

Experiment on studying science texts.
Varied study techniques: just reading, generating notes/diagrams, Testing.
Testing led to superior recall of facts & inferential questions.

Landauer & Bjork (1978)

Related to spaced/distributed practice and retrieval practice.

Motivation and Learning

Motivation (e.g., curiosity) improves memory in both automatic and strategic ways.
Curiosity and external rewards improved memorization strategies; while strategies under control were still important.

Gruber et al. (2014): Curiosity During Learning Affects Later Memory

Curiosity during learning has a substantial effect in effective encoding, rather than just the triggering items.

Episodic Memory vs Semantic Memory

Episodic memory = memory for specific events in time.
Semantic memory = memory for facts (e.g., world knowledge).
Episodic and semantic memories functionally differ.
Neuropsychological evidence suggests different brain regions are involved, with hippocampal damage affecting episodic memory more severely.

Meaning and Schemas (Bartlett's Approach)

Studied how complex materials are recalled (e.g., drawings, folk tales).
Investigated recall errors, and stressed the importance of meaning in organizing learned information.
Recalled stories were sometimes "westernized" because of preexisting knowledge.

Role of Schemas (Sulin and Dooling, 1974)

In a study about dictators, participants had better recall when given a schema/context (e.g., context of "Adolf Hitler").

Test Sentence ("He hated the Jews...")

Participants were more likely to incorrectly agree with a related but false assertion.
Schematic knowledge influences memory, most especially across longer intervals.

Paivio's Dual-Coding Hypothesis

More imageable words are more memorable.
High vs. low imageability.
Multiple ways of encoding a concept aids memorization.

Levels of Processing Theory (Craik & Lockhart, 1972)

Emphasized deeper processing leads to better memory.
Experiment with words and three different levels of processing (visual, phonological and semantic).
Deeper processing produced better long-term recall.

Craik & Tulving (1975)

Deep processing enhances memory.
Demonstrated superior memory with deep processing (e.g., semantic analysis).

Morris, Bransford, and Franks (1977)

Task: incidental learning and incidental tests.
Participants did well only when encoding matched testing cues.
Phonological & semantic matching.

Why is Deeper Coding Better?

Deeper processing of information leads to more robust memory.
Deeper coding and elaborate encoding leads to better memory.

Hierarchical Organization

Organizing information into hierarchies improves recall.
Bower et al., (1969) demonstrated this with word lists.

Intention to Learn (Mandler, 1967)

Sorting by meaning (with/without knowledge of testing) produces better recall than randomly sorting.

Organization of Concepts (Lecture 3)

Semantic memory stores knowledge about the world, and concepts are organized into hierarchical networks.
Concepts have properties that are stored higher up in networks to minimize redundancy.
Sentence verification tasks can be used to measure response times given hierarchical relatedness.

Spreading Activation Model

Concepts are organized by semantic links/relatedness.
Neural activation spreads to related concepts.
Explains how one concept can trigger another.
Explains how familiarity/relatedness can affect response times to sentences.

Problems with the Spreading Activation Model

The model is too flexible (which can be a pro and a con)
The model is difficult to test accurately.
Still open questions about how concepts are organized within the network.

Situated Simulation Theory

Concepts are processed in context; context/situation matters when encoding.
Their processing is influenced by the current context/setting.
Concepts incorporate perceptual or action-related properties.
Concepts reflect current goals/needs.

Concepts in the Brain

Grandmother cell hypothesis, but now considered less plausible. Now it is considered as a feature-based approach
Different aspects of a concept (e.g., visual and motor) may be encoded in different areas.
This new way of organizing concepts is more frequently used.

Neuropsychological Evidence (Support 2)

Examined patients with semantic dementia (general semantic deficits).
These patients struggled with naming objects and categorizing them.
Also examined category-specific deficits where patients struggled more with living things than non-living things.
These brain-based studies support the notion that concepts are organized in various ways within the brain.

Retrieval Process

Retrieval involves progressing from retrieval cues to a memory trace.
Target memories require activation through cues/bonds (associations).
Strength of connections determines memory accessibility.

Factors Determining Retrieval Success

Attention to cues: encoding context influences accuracy/fluency of retrieval.
Cue-target associative strength: how well the cue is associated with the target memory.
Number of cues: additional related cues improve retrieval.

Strength of Target Memory

Strong memories are more easily retrieved, especially through associated cues.
Frequency effect: more frequent memories activate more easily.

Retrieval Strategy

Organization of materials at encoding aids in recall.
Strategies/perspectives aid in retrieval of different memories previously forgotten.

Retrieval Mode

Frame of mind/context aids in recalling stored episodic memories.
Different retrieval situations/modes activate different brain regions.
Involuntary retrieval occurs when something "springs to mind".

Retrieval Tasks

Direct/Explicit Memory Tests: recalling specific experiences.
Indirect/Implicit Memory Tests: measuring unconscious influences of experiences through priming.

Contextual Cues

Spatio-temporal/environmental: Location and time.
Mood: Emotional state.
Physiological: Physical condition.
Cognitive: Related concepts and thoughts.

Context-Dependent Memory: Environmental Factors

Memory is better when the context of encoding and retrieval match.
Participants recall better when their test environment matches their encoding environment.
Similar for internal states (mood).

Mood-Dependent Memory

Memory is better when the mood during retrieval matches the mood during encoding.

Forgettting: Rate and Curve

Forgetting isn't always constant over time.
Studied by Ebbinghaus and later research.
Forgetting rate is often steep initially, plateaus or slows over time.

Availability vs Accessibility (of a memory trace)

Availability: Does the memory exist in the memory store?
Accessibility: Can the memory be retrieved? (depends on cues).
Factors like better learning, more training, and repeated attempts increase memory accessibility.

Consolidation & Reconsolidation

Memories become more permanent through consolidation which happens over time (after the encoding).
Reminders/reactivation of consolidated memories can make them susceptible to changes, leading to a reconsolidation.
Memories are vulnerable to forgetting in different stages of processing.

Causes of Incidental Forgetting

Trace decay (weakening over time).
Context shifts (new cues hinder recall).
Interference from similar memories.

Interference

Similar memories impair the recall of a specific memory in two ways: proactive and retroactive interference.

Retrieval Induced Forgetting (RIF)

Selective retrieval can impair recall of similar or related memories.
Implication for learning and studying.
Implications for how witnesses are questioned in crime scene investigations and other circumstances.

Associative Blocking

A cue fails to elicit a target trace due to strong competitor cues.
Tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon is a classic example of this.

Associative Unlearning

Associative bond between a memory trace and a cue weakens because the cue was unintentionally associated with an incorrect memory.

Functional Account of Forgetting

Forgetting can be a positive function, as it protects against being overloaded and helps focus on similar but new contexts/memories.

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Description

Explore the groundbreaking studies of Ebbinghaus on learning and memory, focusing on his research with nonsense syllables and the relationship between study time and learning efficiency. Additionally, delve into the implications of expertise and brain plasticity through examinations of taxi drivers and medical students. This quiz will test your understanding of key concepts in cognitive psychology.